Теоретическая грамматика (803499), страница 12
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"Semi-idiomatic" constructions which are variable but in a more limited way. The relation between theverb and particle is similar to between a stem and an affix in form formation in that the substitution of one verb foranother, or one particle for another, is constrained by limited productivity. In phrasal verbs like find over("discover"), cut up “cut into pieces” the verb keeps its meaning, whereas the meaning of the particle is less easy toisolate. In contrast, it is the particle which establishes a family resemblance.3. "Highly idiomatic" constructions such as bring up, come by, turn up.
These are thoroughly idiomatic inthat there is no possibility of contrastive substitution: bring/down, come by /past/through, turn up/ down, etc.In such combinations there is no possibility of contrastive substution: there are no pairssuch as bring up/down, put off/on, give up/down, give in/out, etc. for this subclass. The adverbial,lexical values of the particles have been lost, and the entire verb+particle combination has acquireda new meaning.It is often said that phrasal verbs tend to be rather colloquial or informal and more appropriate to spokenEnglish then written, and even that it is better to avoid them and choose single - word equivalents or synonymsinstead. Yet in many cases phrasal verbs and their synonyms have different ranges of use, meaning, or collocation,so that a single - word synonym cannot be substituted appropriately for a phrasal verb. Single - word synonyms areoften much more formal in style than phrasal verbs, so that they seem out of place in many contexts, and studentsusing them run the risk of sounding pompous or just unnatural.
Besides, these are phrasal verbs, like get away withand run of, which do not have one word paraphrases. Second, these are nonidiomatic combinations, such as goacross (= cross), go past (=pass), and sail around (=circumnavigate) which do have such paraphrases.The set of English phrasal verbs is constantly growing and changing. New combinationappear and spread. Yet these new combinations are rarely made on a random basis, but frompatterns which can to some extent be anticipated. Particles often have particular meanings whichthey contribute to a variety of combinations, and which are productive; that is these fixed meaningsare used in order to new combinations.36The Collins COBUILD Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (45) list over three thousandcombinations of verbs with adverbs or prepositions, explaining over five and a half thousanddifferent meanings.These are the combinations which are in common use in everyday modern English.Study questions1.
What are the main features of adverbs?2. Why the term "adverb" chosen to name this group of words?3. What sub-types of adverbs do you know?4. Do adverbs have any grammatical category? If the answer is positive which adverbs have it?5. Why do some grammarians consider such verbal phrases as "give up", "dream about" within the adverbs?6.
What is the main problem within this group of words?Statives or the Words of Category of StateIn English there is a certain class of words which are still disputable.In works of foreign grammarians they are not considered to be a separate part of speech.Some dictionaries published in the United Kingdom and the USA refer them to predicatives. It iswell-known that no grammarians mention this kind of part of speech. To this class of words weinclude aboard, alive, asleep, afraid, aghast, awake and so on.Some Russian scientists regard them as a separate part of speech.B. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya (22)call them adlinks on the analogy of adverbs. These words can beviewed as a part of speech because of their following features:1.
meaning they denote: state2. stem building morpheme: it is formed by the help of productive prefixal morpheme /a-/3. combinability: these words are exclusively combined with the link-verb to be and adverbs4. Syntactic function: they are always used as predicatives.They do not have any grammatical category and this is the only feature of them whichdiffer them from other parts of speech /notional parts are meant/: This part of speech can't bemixed up with adjectives or adverbs as some linguists do, because they do not possess the degreesof comparison and their combinability is different."A-" component homonymically combines in itself the functions of prefix, preposition and article.- the prefix a- can express the meanings of prepositions: away, on, up, out.
She is asleep She is sleeping /on/. He has gone to the shore - He is ashore.This part of speech seems to be more economical as it is seen from the examples above.Therefore it may be one of the reasons of its wide usage in Modern English.Study questions1. What words are called statives? Why are they called so?2. There's no unanimously accepted conception on this group of words, why?3. What is the main difference between statives and other notional parts of speech?4. Are there any other terms that name this group of words?5.
Why are these words develop so fastly?6. How are these words translated in your native language?37Lecture 10The Functional Parts of SpeechIssues to be considered:-the difference between the notional and functional words-the different approaches of linguistics to this issue-the ways of classifying of functional parts of speechNow, when we have viewed all the notional words we may get down to the study ofstructural or functional parts of speech. To this group of words traditionally prepositions,conjunctions, articles and some auxiliary words are referred.
Some scholars include adverbs, linkverbs, and even modal-verbs (Fries). It is important to consider the conceptions of some prestructural grammarians.H. Sweet (42) in the sentence "The earth is round" differs two types of words: full words and form words orempty words: earth and round are full words while the and is are form words. He states that the and is are "formwords because they are words in form only ... they are entirely devoid of meaning". Is does not have a meaning ofits own but is used to connect subject and predicate.
Thus though it has no meaning of its own, independentmeaning, it has a definite grammatical function - it is a grammatical form-word. But "the" has not even agrammatical function and serves only to show that earth is to be taken as terrestrical globe and therefore it is a partof the word as the derivational prefix un - in unknown.
In treating form-words by Sweet one of the most valuablepoint is the following his conception. He states that very often a word combines the function of a form - word withsomething of the independent meaning of a full word. To this type of words he includes words like become in hebecame a prime minister. As full word it has the meaning of “change” and the function of the form - word is. Theabove sentence consists of "He changed his condition + he is a prime minister". Now his conception schematicallymay be shown as follows:full words intermediate stratum form - word.Facts like these bear the proof that it is difficult to draw a definite line between full words and form words.O.
Jespersen (33), (34): suggests that adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections should be calledparticles. He sees a parallel in the relation between an adverb and a preposition and the relation between intransitiveand a transitive verb. According to his statement there is the same difference between the verbs in He sings, Heplays and He sings a song, He plays the piano. "Yet in spite of these differences in verb no one assigns them todifferent part of speech. Therefore why we should assign to different parts of speech words like on and since.Put your cap on (adv.)Put your cap on your head (preposition); andI have not seen her since (adv.)I have not seen her since I arrived (preposition)Because of these facts they may be termed by one word, i.e. "Particles".Function Words - 1Some words in English have no inflectional or derivational ending.They are simply tools for putting other words together.
They perform a function in the system – outside thesystem they have little or no meaning whatever. These words fall into categories determined only on the basis oftheir position in grammatical structures they enter into. They are referred to by the collective term function words.The categories of function words are often called closed classes because new ones are rarely, ever, added to them.The list of function words in English is firmly established.The relationship of function words to form class is often linked to that of mortar and bricks.Major Categories of Function Words – 11.Determiners:2.3.Auxiliary verbs:Qualifiers:Function words which signal nouns.They never appear except when followed by a noun andinvariably signal its coming: a, the, an, possessive pr-nshave and be. Modals are subcategories.work with both adj.
and adv.: more and most, very, quite, rather,less (intensifiers)Function Words – 24.Prepositions385.Conjunctions:6.Subordinators:7.Interrogatives:work as coordination of linguistic forms of syntactic units havingequal valueConnect dependent clauses and include words like: because,after, as well as relative pronounsOperate in the formation of questions and include words likewhen, where, why, how and so on: as well as – the interrogativepronouns which, what, who39Lecture 11SyntaxProblems to be discussed:- subject - matter of syntax- syntax-minor and syntax-major- the types of syntactical relationsa) coordinationb) subordinationc) predication: primary and secondary predication- the types of syntactical relations according to the form of the constituentsa) agreementb) governmentc) collocation- word-combinations and their typesThe Subject – matter of SyntaxIt has been mentioned above that the syntactic level is divided into two: syntax – minor andsyntax – major.
The first one deals with sentence structure and the second – with text and itsstructure.The term "Syntax - minor" is common one for both language and speech levels and theirunit "sentence" is also one common term for language and speech.The abstract notion "sentence" of language can have concrete its representation in speech which is alsocalled “sentence” due to the absence of the special term. Example: “An idea of John’s writing a letter” on theabstract language level can have its concrete representation in speech: John writes a letter. A letter is written byJohn.Since one and the same idea is expressed in two different forms they are called "allo sentences".
Some authors call them grammatical synonyms. Thus, sentence is language and speechunits on the syntax - minor level, which has a communicative function.The basic unit of syntax - minor i.e. sentence often consists of some word -groups (or word- combinations):The roundness of the earth is known all over the world.1 .The sentence consists of two distinct word - combinations: "the roundness of the earth"and "is known all over the world". The same word - combinations may be used without any changein other sentences. The teacher explained the pupils the roundness of the earth. This means thatword - combinations can be studied as a separate unit.2.
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