Теоретическая грамматика (803499), страница 13
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In utterances there may be simple sentences like "It was dark", "It began to rain".Sometimes they may be joined together, depending on the intensions of the speakers, as forexample:(a) It was dark, and it began to rain.(b) When it was dark, it began to rain.Though the structure of constituting sentences are identical when they are joined togetherthe structure of joined units (a) and (b) are different.
This means that such units (which aretraditionally called composite or compound/complex sentences) may be also studied separately.Thus syntax - minor deals with simple sentences, with a smaller unit than the simplesentence i.e. word combinations and with the bigger unit than the simple sentence - compositesentences.In the same way the level syntax - major can be explained. The unit of this level is text the highest level of language and speech. "Syntax- major" represents both language and speechlevels due to the absence of separate term as well as "text" is used homogeniously for bothlanguage and speech units.The Types of Linguistic Relations Between WordsThere are two types of relations between words in languages: paradigmatic and syntagmatic.401) paradigmatic bond is a connection among the classes of linguistic units/words combined by the existenceof some certain common features, e.g.a) asking, sitting, barking, sleeping (all these words have common –ing ending);b) ask, asking, asks, asked, has asked, be asked (in this case it is stem “ask” is common);2) Syntagmatic connection is a bond among linguistic units in a lineal succession in theconnected speech.Syntagmatic connection between words or group of words is also called a syntactic bond.Types of Syntactic RelationsOne of the most important problems of syntax is the classification and criteria ofdistinguishing of different types of syntactical connection.L.
Barkhudarov (3) distinguishes three basic types of syntactical bond: subordination, co-ordination,predication.Subordination implies the relation of head-word and adjunct-word, as e.g. a tall boy, a redpen and so on.The criteria for identification of head-word and adjunct is the substitution test. Example:1) A tall boy came in.2) A boy came in.3) Tall came in.This shows that the head-word is "a boy" while "tall" is adjunct, since the sentence (3) isunmarked from the English language view point.
While sentence (2) is marked as it has aninvariant meaning with the sentence (1).Co-ordination is shown either by word-order only, or by the use of form-words:4) Pens and pencils were purchased.5) Pens were purchased.6) Pencils were purchased.Since both (5), (6) sentences show identical meaning we may say that these two words areindependent: coordination is proved.Predication is the connection between the subject and the predicate of a sentence.
In predication none of thecomponents can be omitted which is the characteristic feature of this type of connection, as e.g.7) He came ...8) *He ...9) * ... came or10) I knew he had come11) * I knew he12) * I knew had comeSentences (8), (9) and (11), (12) are unmarked ones.H. Sweet (42) distinguishes two types of relations between words: subordination, coordination.Subordination is divided in its turn into concord when head and adjunct words have alike inflection, as it is inphrases this pen or these pens: and government when a word assumes a certain grammatical form through beingassociated with another word:13) I see him, here "him" is in the objective case-form.
The transitive verbs require the personalpronouns in this case.14) I thought of him. “him” in this sentence is governed by the preposition “of”. Thus, “see” and“of” are the words that governs while “him” is a governed word.B. Ilyish (15) also distinguishes two types of relations between words: agreement by which he means "amethod of expressing a syntactical relationship, which consists in making the subordinate word take a form similarto that of the word to which it is subordinated".
Further he states: "the sphere of agreement in Modern English isextremely small. It is restricted to two pronouns-this and that ..." government ("we understand the use of a certainform of the subordinate word required by its head word, but not coinciding with the form of the head word itself-thatis the difference between agreement and government")e.g. Whom do you seeThis approach is very close to Sweet's conception.E.
Kruisinga (36) considers two types of word-groups: close and loose.I. Close group - when one of the members is syntactically the leading element of the group. There may be verbgroups like running quickly, to hear a noise and nouns groups: King Edward, my bookII. Loose group - when each element is comparatively independent of the other members: men and woman; strict butjust and so on.Thus, if we choose the terms suggested by Barkhudarov L.S., then we may say all grammarians mentionedhere are unanimous as to the existence in English the subordination and coordination bonds.
In addition to these two41bonds Barkhudarov adds the predication. So when speaking on the types of syntactic connections in English weshall mean the three bonds mentioned.As one can see that when speaking about syntactic relations between words we mention the termscoordination, subordination, predication, agreement and government.
It seems that it is very important todifferenciate the first three terms (coordination, subordination and predication) from the terms agreement andgovernment, because the first three terms define the types of syntactical relations from the standpoint of dependenceof the components while the second ones define the syntactic relations from the point of view of the correspondenceof the grammatical forms of their components.
Agreement and government deals with only subordination and hasnothing to do with coordination and predication. Besides agreement and government there is one more type ofsyntactical relations which may be called collocation when head and adjunct words are connected with each-othernot by formal grammatical means (as it is the case with agreement and government but by means of merecollocation, by the order of words and by their meaning as for example: fast food, great day, sat silently and so on).Study questions1. What types of linguistic relations between words do you know?2. What relation is called paradigmatic?3. What relation is called syntagmatic?4. What is agreement?5. What is government?6.
What is collocation?7. Are there agreement, government and collocation in your native language?8. What relation between words are called syntactic?9. What relation is called predicative?Word-Combinations and Their TypesWord-combination (or phrase) is a syntactically connected group of notional words within the limits ofsentence but which is not a sentence itself. (3),B. Ilyish (15) defines it as follows: "Phrase is every combination of two or more wordswhich is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word (as, for instance, the perfectforms of verbs)" and further Ilyish writes that "the difference between a phrase and a sentence is afundamental one. A phrase is a means of naming some phenomenon or process, just as a word is.Each component of a phrase can undergo grammatical changes in accordance with grammaticalcategories represented in it.
Without destroying the identity of the phrase."."With a sentence things are entirely different. A sentence is a unit with every word havingits definite form. A change in the form of one or more words would produce a new sentence".But if one takes into consideration that any phrase is a constituent of sentences then it isdifficult to accept Ilyish's concept of phrases. Any change in the structure of a phrase may resultthe change in the sentence to which this phrase refers. In this case that sentence will becomeanother sentence as per the concept of the author.Following L.
Barkhudarov's conception we distinguish three types of word- combinations:1. Subordinate phrases the IC of which are connected by a subordination bond: cold water,reading a book, famous detective, smoked fish, and so on.Z. Co-ordinate phrases the IC of which are connected by a coordination bond: slowly but steadily; pen andpencils.3. Predicative phrases the IC of which are connected by a predication bond: for you to go; breakfast over...When he turned his head the two behind could see his lips moving.But phrases don't always consist of two elements; their IC may contain more than oneword, as e.g.three black dogsIn the same phrase we find 3 words. IC are connected by a subordination bond. When I Cof two or more membered phrases are connected by a similar bond we'll call elementary phrase,e.g.
mighty entertaining story; teaching English Grammar: men, women and children... But veryoften certain phrases in their turn fall under some other phrases, 1C of which are connected bydifferent bonds, as it is in the phrase. Red and blue pencils.Here we find subordination and coordination. Such phrases are called compound phrases,e.g. brought pens and pencils. Subordinate phrases may be of different types which depend on thepart of speech the head word is expressed by42The Types of Co-ordinate PhrasesThe coordinate phrases may be of two types: syndetically connected (free and happy) andasyndetically connected coordinate phrases (hot, dusty, tired out).
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