Теоретическая грамматика (803499), страница 11
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(22)As they put it this category is the system of two member opposition:shall come - should come.will come - would cometheir meaning is: absolute and relative posteriority.When posteriority is expressed in relation to the moment of speech it is called absolute. If posteriority iswith regard to some other moment then it is relative.If we accept this category, according to the definition of the grammatical category it is expressed byauxiliary verbs shall and will for absolute posteriority and should and would for relative. Shall and will cannotdenote at the same time, two meanings: those of tense and posteriority, if in this case - there are two meanings thenwe must admit that the auxiliaries will- would, shall-should consist of two morphemes each.
Applying the usualprocedure we cut the words into w-ill and w-ould; sh-all and sh-ould; w-w and sh-sh are combined into morphemesof tense, and ill-all as allmorphs of the morpheme of absolute posteriority while ould-ould - as morpheme of relativeposteriority.The Categories of Number and PersonThe category of person is the system of two member opposition. It is available only in thePresent Tense in singular number. B.
Khaimovich and Rogovskaya (22) state that “the third personwith a positive morpheme being opposed to the first person with a zero morpheme”. In the futuretense sh- of the first person is opposed to w- of the second and third persons.A similar treatment of the problem is observed in works of L.S. Barkhudarov (2), (4), who opposes thirdperson to the common person (1st, 2nd persons) because “almost all the verbs in the 1st and 2nd persons have a zeromarker”.So far as to the category of number is concerned many grammarians consider that it is in its purityrepresented only in the verb “to be”, for other verbs the opposition of the 3rd person singular, to 3rd person pluralaccepted (in the present-tense).Study questions1. What are the most important features of verbs?2.
Why do some scientists say that verbs are "System of systems"?3. Why do they say that verbs are morphologically most developed part of speech?4. What are the criteria for classification of verbs?5. What is the difference between finite and non-finite forms of the verb?336. What verbs are called non-finite?7. What verbs are called irregular?8. How many basic forms of the verb do you know?9. What is the difference between terminative and non-terminative verbs?10.
What is the difference between notional and functional verbs?11. What functional verbs do you know?12. What is the difference between auxiliary and link-verbs?13. What are the peculiar features of modal verbs? Why are they called defective?14. How many grammatical categories of the verb do you know?15. Which grammatical category of the verb is the most intricate and why?16.
Do English verbs have the reciprocal and reflexive voices?34Lecture 9The AdverbIssues to be discussed:- what words are called adverbs- the types of adverbs- the grammatical category of degrees of comparison- about the constituents of phrasal verbs like "give up"The adverb is separated into a special part of speech because of the following facts:1.
Meaning: they express the degree of a property, property of an action, circumstances under which anaction takes place.2. Form: they have the degrees of comparison.3. Stem-building elements: - ly, -ways, -wards, ...4. Combinability: bilateral combinability with verbs, adjectives, adverbs, less regularlywith adlinks: e.g. He was hard asleep.5. Function: Adverbial modifiers.According to the meaning adverbs fall under three subclasses:1. qualitative2. quantitative3. circumstantialQualitative adverbs usually modify verbs.Adverbs like: badly, quickly, slowly, steadily, comparatively may be referred to this type of adverbs.They denote the quality of actions:Ex: Clay collapsed on the sand beside Cathie, a wet arm playfully snatching her towelaway.I want to go home, she said determinedly.The Qualitative adverbs are derived from the adjectives by the help of productive adverb forming suffix ly.
Like adjectives the qualitative adverbs have distinctions of degree. These adverbs can both precede and followthe verbs.Quantitative adverbs show the degree, measure, quantity of an action and state. To this subclass adverbslike very, rather, too, nearly, greatly, fully, hardly, quite, utterly may be referred. Ex. She had told herself before thatit would be foolish to fall in love with Rob.
And she had finally done it.Her gaze trailed around the room again, stopping at the partially opened double doors thatled into the parlour.Some part of her was walking with him because of that strange, intimate look they had exchanged - a lookthat Cathie would rather forget, but warmth was too fresh. J. Daiby.If the combinability of the qualitative adverbs is bound with verbs only the combinabilityof the quantitative adverbs are more extensive: they can modify verbs, the words of category ofstate, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and nouns.Circumstantial adverbs serve to denote in most cases local and temporal circumstances attending an action.Accordingly they are divided into two groups:a) adverbs of time and frequency /today, tomorrow, often, again, twice .../.b) adverbs of place and direction: upstairs, behind, in front of, ...
Ex. They stood outsidethe door, giving me directions. Now and then they deliberately refused to jump up and find himselfsomething to do when the unpleasant sensations clutched at him.c) She waited in front of the window and when he came down he thrust a small dark blue box into herhands. L.WrightThus, circumstancial adverbs denote the time and place the action took place. Thereforeunlike the previous subclasses the circumstantial adverbs can occupy any position in the sentence.Some circumstantial adverbs can have the degrees of comparison: often, late, near and so on.Special attention should be given to the fact that some circumstancial adverbs may bepreceded by prepositions: from now on, up to now, from there and so on.The So-Called Phrasal VerbsOne of the fundamental problems within the adverbs is the problem connected with suchgroups of verbs as: to give in, to get down, to dream about and so on.
In most cases the meaning ofsuch groups as above does not depend on the meaning of their components. The thing here is: are35the second elements prepositions, adverbs or some other parts of speech? This problem hasbecome acute in Modern English.The prevailing view here is that they are adverbs. But there are other views like Palmer's - "prepositionslike adverbs"; Amosova's "postpositives" (1), Ilyish's "half-word, half-morphemes" (15) and so on. None of thesesuggestions can be accepted. They are not adverbs because other adverbs do not fulfill such functions, i.e.
they donot change the meaning of the preceding word; they are not postpositives, because postpositives in other languagesdo not serve to build new words, and at last they are not grammatical morphemes and consequently the whole groupcan not be a word since in English no discontinuous word is found as, for instance, bring them up. The word thembreaks the unity. The problem remains unsolved. For the time being, the most acceptable theory is the theoryexpressed by B.A. Ilyish in his latest grammar.
He refers them very cautiously, with doubts, to phraseology and thusit should be the subject-matter of the lexicology.Some foreign Grammarians (28), (37) give different treatment to phrasal verbs. Accordingto their opinion phrasal verb is an umbrella term for different kinds of multi - word verbs(including phrasal - prepositional and prepositional verbs). Such verbs are of typical and frequentoccurrence in all types of English, but most especially in every day spoken English.Phrasal verbs are often of particular difficulty experienced by learners of English. There areseveral reasons for this.
One reason is that in many cases, even though students may be familiarwith both the verb in phrasal verb and with the particle, they may not understand the meaning ofthe combination, since it can differ greatly from the meanings of the two words used independently. The fact that phrasal verbs often have a number of different meanings adds to thiscomplexity additional difficulty.There are some particular grammatical problems associated with phrasal verbs. Forexample, there are restrictions on the positions in which an adverb can be placed in relation to theobject of a verb.
Some particles, such as about, over, round and through can be used as bothadverbs and prepositions in particular phrasal verbs combinations, although in other combinationsthey are used either as adverb or preposition. Some phrasal verbs are not normally used withpronouns as objects, others are normally used with pronouns as objects.There are other difficulties such as the fact that there are frequently strong collocationassociations between phrasal verbs and other words.
Thus, in some cases a particular word or smallset of words is the only one normally found as the subject or object of a particular verb.According to our classification all phrasal verbs fall under 3 main types (and 6 subtypesfrom the viewpoint of verb transitivity):1. free nonidiomatic constructions, where the individual meaning of the components are preserved as inlook over (=inspect), set up (=organize). The individuality of the components appears in possible contrastivesubstitutions: bring in (out), take in (out) etc.2.
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