Теоретическая грамматика (803499), страница 15
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Both of them are characterized byhaving partial inversions:Are we staying here?Where are we staying?Besides, the first one has a special (rising) intonation pattern. The second one (whquestion) has interrogative words. But the intonation pattern of wh-questions is identical with thatof the affirmative sentences.And it is important to point out that the interrogative sentences require answers (if they arenot rhetorical ones).Exclamatory SentencesThe peculiar features of these sentences are:1.
exclamatory sentences usually express some sort of emotion, feeling or the spirit of theperson who pronounces it;2. in their structure they have such introductory words as what and how:Ex. What a lovely night! How beautiful it is here!3. they are always in the declarative form;4. there’s usually no inversion;5. they are pronounced with a falling intonation;Imperative SentencesThe imperative sentences are opposed to non-imperative ones because.1.
In imperative sentences the predicate is used in only one form-in the imperative one,while in non-imperative sentences predicate may be used in any form except the imperative.2. In imperative sentences no modal verb is used.3.
The imperative sentences are most often directed to the second person.4. The subject of the imperative sentences are almost always represented by the zeroalternant of you, that is, elliptically.5. The imperative sentences urge the listener to perform an action or verbal response.The above said is quite sufficient to characterize the structure of imperative sentences to bespecific and distinct from that of the structure of non-imperative sentences.46Elliptical SentencesThe problem of elliptical sentences has been and still is one of the most important and atthe same time difficult problems of syntax.The problem is solved by different linguists in different way.
According to H. Kruisinga's(36) concept “Any noun that is used to call a person may be looked upon as a sentence, or asentence-word.Some words regularly form a sentence, such as “yes” or “no”'; but they do so only inconnection with another sentence. Words used in a sentence with subject and predicate may also bealone to form a complete sentence, but again in connection with another sentence only...”As we stated above elliptical sentences are also the result of transformation of kernelsentences. Since transforms are derived from kernel sentences they must be considered inconnection with the latter.L.
Barkhudarov (3) looks upon the sentences like «Вечер», «Утро» and so on as two-member sentences.Really, if we isolate such utterances from the language system it will not be divisible. If an investigator wants to beobjective he cannot neglect the language system. Any unit of any language is in interdependence of the other unitsof the language. Since the overwhelming majority of sentences are two-member ones as e.g.
«Был вечер», «Будетвечер» the above-mentioned utterances are also two-member ones. In sentences «Был вечер», «Будет вечер» thepredicates are expressed explicitly, while in «Вечер», «Утро» the predicates are expressed by zero alternants of theverb «быть». M. Blokh is conception is very close to this (5), (6).The classification of elliptical sentences may be based on the way of their explication. Byexplication we understand the replacement of the zero alternant of this or that word by the explicitone. There are two kinds of explication:1. Syntagmatically restored elliptical sentences - when the explicit alternant of the ellipticalsentence is found in the same context where the elliptical sentence is:One was from Maine; the other from California.If you have no idea where Clive might be, I certainly haven't.
(Nancy Buckingam).2. Paradigmatically restored elliptical sentence - when the explicit alternant of the zeroform is not found in the context where the ellipsis is used but when it is found in similar languageconstructions, e.g.Stop and speak to me. (Galsworthy)You listen to me, Horace. (Steinback)One -member Sentences“A sentence is the expression of a self- contained and complete thought”.
Quite often theterms are applied to linguistic forms lack completeness in one or more respects. It will of course bereadily agreed that sentences like “All that glitters is not gold” and “Two multiplied by two arefour”, are formally and notionally complete and self-contained.But in everyday intercourse utterances of this type are infrequent in comparison with theenormous number which rely upon the situation or upon the linguistic context - to make theirintention clear.In the extract Strove asked him if he had seen Strickland. “He is ill”, he said.
“Didn’t you know?” –“Seriously?” – “Very, I understand”, to Fries “Seriously” is a sentence - equivalent. They all seem to be a completecommunication. But it can not be denied that each of them, either through pronouns (he, him) or through omissions,depend heavily on what has been said immediately before it is spoken; in fact the last three would be unthinkableoutside a linguistic context. Properly speaking, therefore, omissions must be said to effect connection betweensentences (31), (32).Sentences with syntactic items left out are natural, for omissions are inherent in the veryuse of language. “In all speech activities there are three things to be distinguished: expression,suppression, and impression.Expression is what the speaker gives, suppression is what the speaker does not give, thoughhe might have given it, and impression is what the hearer receives”.
(35)Grammarians have often touched upon omissions of parts of sentences. But it is difficult tofind an opinion which is shared by the majority of linguists.When considering the types of sentences some grammarians recognize the existence oftwo-member, one-member and elliptical sentences. The two-member sentences are sentences47which have the subject and the predicate. However, language is a phenomenon where one cannotforesay the structure of it without detailed analysis. There are sentences which cannot be describedin terms of two-member sentences. We come across to sentences which do not contain both thesubject and the predicate.
“There's usually one primary part and the other could not even besupplied, at least not without a violent change of the structure of the sentence", (llyish) Fire! Night.Come on!As Ilyish (15) puts it, it is a disputed point whether the main part of such a sentence should,or should not be termed subject in some case (as in Fire! Night...) or predicate in some other(Come on!; Why not stay here?) There are grammarians who keep to such a conception.
RussianAcademician V.V. Vinogradov (10) considers that grammatical subject and predicate arecorrelative notions and that the terms lose their meaning outside their relation to each other. Hesuggests the term “main part”.Thus, one member sentence is a sentence which has no separate subject and predicate but one main onlyinstead. B.
Ilyish (15) considers some types of such sentences:1) with main part of noun (in stage directions);Night. A lady's bed-chamber ... .2) Imperative sentences with no subject of the action mentioned:Come down, please.Infinitive sentences are also considered to be one special type of one-member sentences. Inthese sentences the main part is expressed by an infinitive. Such sentences are usually emotional:Oh, to be in a forest in May!Why not go there immediately?B.A. Ilyish (15) states that these sentences should not be considered as elliptical ones, sincesentences like:Why should not we go there immediately? - is stylistically different from the original one.By elliptical sentence he means sentence with one or more of their parts left out, which canbe unambiguously inferred from the context.Study questions1. What linguistic unit is called a sentence?2.
What are the main features of sentences?3. What theories on sentence do you know?4. What is the difference between primary and secondary predication?5. What criteria are used to classify sentences?6. What do you understand by structural classification of sentences?7. What do you understand by the classification of sentences according to the aim of the speaker?8. What do you understand by the classification of sentences according to the existence of the partsof the sentence?9. What is the difference between one- and two-member sentences?10. What sentences are called elliptical?11. What is “syntagmatically restored” and “paradigmatically restored”elliptical sentences?48Lecture 13Composite SentencesProblems to be discussed:- the difference between simple and composite sentences- the types of composite sentences:a) compoundd) complexc) mixed (compound-complex) sentencesThe word "composite" is used by H.
Poutsma (39) as a common term for both thecompound and complex sentences.There are three types of composite sentences in Modern English:1. The compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses with no dependent one.2. The complex sentence contains one dependent clause and one or more independent clauses. The latterusually tells something about the main clause and is used as a part of speech or as a part of sentence.J. The compound-complex sentence combines the two previous types.
The compound-complex sentencesare those which have at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause in itsstructure: Blair found herself smiling at him and she took the letter he held out to her.That there are three types of composite sentences in languages is contemporary approach to this issue.Historically not all the grammarians were unanimous in this respect. According to it H. Sweet (42) there arestructurally two types of sentences: simple and complex.“Two or more sentences may be joined together to form a single complex sentence … In every complexthere is one independent clause, called the principal clause together with at least one dependent clause, which standsin the relation of adjunct to the principal clause.
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