Теоретическая грамматика (803499), страница 5
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There isas yet no generally accepted system of English parts of speech. Now we shall consider conceptions ofsome grammarians.H. Sweet's (42) classification of parts of speech is based on the three principles (criteria), namelymeaning, form and function. All the words in English he divides into two groups: 1) noun-words: nouns,noun-pronouns, noun-numerals, infinitive, gerund; 2) verbs: finite verbs, verbals (infinitive, gerund,participle)I. Declinable Adjective words: adjective, adjective pronouns, adjective-numeral, participlesII.
Indeclinable: adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjectionAs you see, the results of his classification, however, reveal a considerable divergence between histheory and practice. He seems to have kept to the form of words. Further, concluding the chapter hewrote: "The distinction between the two classes which for convenience we distinguish as declinable andindeclinable parts of speech is not entirely dependent on the presence or absence of inflection, but reallygoes deeper, corresponding, to some extent, to the distinction between head - word and adjunct-word.The great majority of the particles are used only as adjunct-words, many of them being only form-words,while declinable words generally stand to the particles in the relation of headwords.O. Jespersen.
(34)According to Jespersen the division of words into certain classes in the main goes back to the Greek and Latingrammarians with a few additions and modifications.He argues against those who while classifying words kept to either form or meaning of words, hestates that the whole complex of criteria, i.e. form, function and meaning should he kept in view. Hegives the following classification:1. Substantives (including proper names)2.
AdjectivesIn some respects (1) and (2) may be classed together as "Nouns ".3. Pronouns (including numerals and pronominal adverbs)4. Verbs (with doubts as to the inclusion of "Verbids")5. Particles (comprising what are generally called adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions- coordinating andsubordinating - and interjections).15As it is seen from his classification in practice only one of those features is taken intoconsideration, and that is primarily form.
Classes (1-4) are declinable while particles not. It remindsSweet's grouping of words. The two conceptions are very similar.Tanet R. Aiken kept to function only. She has conceived of a six-class system, recognizing thefollowing categories: absolute, verb, complement, modifiers and connectives.Ch. Fries' (31), (32) classification of words is entirely different from those of traditional grammarians. The newapproach - the application of two of the methods of structural linguistics, distributional analysis and substitution - makes itpossible for Fries to dispense with the usual eight parts of speech.
He classifies words into four form - classes, designatedby numbers, and fifteen groups of function words, designated by letters. The form-classes correspond roughly to what mostgrammarians call noun and pronouns (1st clause), verb (2nd clause), adjective and adverbs, though Fries warns the readeragainst the attempt to translate the statements which the latter finds in the book into the old grammatical terms.The group of function words contains not only prepositions and conjunctions but certain specific words that moretraditional grammarians would class as a particular kind of pronouns, adverbs and verbs.
In the following examples:1. Woggles ugged diggles2. Uggs woggled diggs3. Diggles diggled digglesThe woggles, uggs, diggles are "thing", because they are treated as English treats "thing" words we know it by the "positions" they occupy in the utterances and the forms they have, in contrast withother positions and forms. Those are all structural signals of English.
So Fries comes to the conclusionthat a part of speech in English is a functioning pattern.1 All words that can occupy the same "set ofpositions" in the patterns of English single free utterances (simple sentences) must belong to the samepart speech.Fries' test-frame-sentences were the following:Frame AFrame BFrame CThe concert was good (always)The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly)The team went thereFries started with his first test frame and set out to find in his material all the words that could besubstituted for the word concert with no change of structural meaning (The materials were some fiftyhours of tape-recorded conversations by some three hundred different speakers in which the participantswere entirely unaware that their speech was being recorded):The concert was goodfoodcoffeetaste.....The words of this list he called class I words.The word “was” and all the words that can be used in this position he called class 2 words.In such a way he revealed 4 classes of notional words and 15 classes of functional words.These four classes of notional words contain approximately 67 per cent of the total instances ofthe vocabulary items.
In other words our utterances consist primarily of arrangements of these four partsof speech.Functional words are identified by lettersClassAthethea/aneverynomyouroneallboththatsome John’sWordsconcert was goodAll the words appearing in this position (Group A) serve as markers of Class 1 words. Sometimesthey are called "determiners".The author enumerates fourteen more groups of function words among which we find, accordingto the traditional terminology1Compare: «the difference between nouns and verbs lies not in what kinds of things they stand for, but in what kinds offrames they stand in: I saw Robert kill Mary. I witnessed the killing of Mary by Robert”“Language processes” Vivien Tartter.
N.Y., 1986, p.8916Group B - modal verbsGroup C - n.p.notGroup D - adverbs of degreeGroup E - coordinating conj-s.Group F - prepositionsGroup G - the aux-v. doGroup H - introductory thereGroup I - interrogative pr-ns and adverbsGroup J - subordinating conj-sGroup K- interjectionsGroup L- the words yes and noGroup M - attention giving signals look, say, listenGroup N - the word pleaseGroup O - let us, let in request sentences.The difference between the four classes of words and function words are as follows:1. The four classes are large in number while the total number of function words amounts to 154.2.
In the four classes the lexical meanings of the separate words are rather clearly separable fromthe structural meanings of the arrangements in which these words appear. In the fifteen groups it isusually difficult if not impossible to indicate a lexical meaning apart from the structural meanings whichthese words signal.3. Function words must be treated as items since they signal different structural meanings:The boys were given the money.The boys have given the money. (32)Russian grammarians in classifying words into parts of speech keep to different concepts;A.I. Smirnitsky identifies three criteria. The most important of them is the syntactic function nextcomes meaning and then morphological forms of words. In his opinion stem-building elements are of nouse.
His word-groups are:Notional words1. Nouns2. Adjectives3. Numerals4. Pronouns5. Adverbs6. VerbsFunction wordslink - verbsprepositionsconjunctionsmodifying function words(article, particle)only, even, notR. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya identify five criteria1. Lexico - grammatical meaning of words2. Lexico - grammatical morphemes (stem - building elements)3. Grammatical categories of words.4. Their combinability (unilateral, bilateral)5.
Their function in a sentence.Their Classification1. Nouns2. Adjectives3. Pronouns4. Numerals5. Verbs6. Adverbs7. Adlinks (the cat. of state)8. Modal words9. Prepositions10. Conjunctions11. Particles (just, yet, else, alone)12. Interjections13. Articles14. Response words (yes, no)asleep, aliveAs authors state the parts of speech lack some of those five criteria. The most general properties of parts ofspeech are features 1, 4 and 5. B. A. Ilyish (15) distinguishes three criteria:1. meaning; 2.
form, 3. function. The third criteria is subdivided into two:a) the method of combining the word with other onesb) the function in the sentence.a) has to deal with phrases; b) with sentence structure. B. A. Ilyish considers the theory of parts ofspeech as essentially a part of morphology, involving, however, some syntactical points.1. Nouns2. Adjective3. Pronoun4. Numerals7. Adverbs8. Prepositions9. Conjunctions10. Particles175. Statives (asleep, afraid) 11. Modal words6. Verbs12. InterjectionsL. Barkhudarov, D. Steling (4). Their classification of words are based on four principles. But theimportant and characteristic feature of their classification is that they do not make use of syntactic function of wordsin sentences: meaning, grammatical forms, combinability with other words and the types of word - building (whichare studied not by grammar, but by lexicology).1.
Nouns7. Verbs2. Articles8. Prepositions3. Pronouns9. Conjunctions4. Adjectives10. Particles5. Adverbs11. Modal words6. Numerals12. InterjectionsWe find another approach of those authors to the words of English.All the words are divided into two main classes:notional words and function - words: connectives, determinativesFunction words are those which do not have full lexical meaning and cannot be used as anindependent part of sentences. According to their function these words, as has been mentioned, aresubdivided into connectives and determinatives:1.
connectives form phrases as to believe in something or as in the hall. To connectivesauthors refer: prepositions, conjunctions, modal and link verbs;2. determinatives are words which define the lexical meaning of notional words (theyeither limit them, or make them more concrete). These words include articles and particles.The consideration of conceptions of different grammarians shows that the problem of partsof speech is not yet solved.
There's one point which is generally accepted: in M-n English there aretwo classes of words-notional and functional - which are rather distinct.18Lecture 6The NounProblems to be discussed:- nouns as a part of speech- the grammatical categories of nounsa) numberb) case- the meaning of gender in Modern English-gender and sex.In most cases in treating parts of speech in English we shall keep to the conception ofscientists that we refer to post-structural tendency. It's because they combine the ideas oftraditional and structural grammarians.The noun is classified into a separate word - group because:1.
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