Теоретическая грамматика (803499), страница 2
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There's only one term for bothlanguage and speech but the units have different terms: morpheme for language and morph for speech.This level deals with units that are also smallest but in this case they are meaningful. So the smallestmeaningful unit of language is called a morpheme and the smallest meaningful unit of speech is called amorph. The morphs that have different forms, but identical (similar) meanings are united into onemorpheme and called "allomorphs".
The morpheme of the past tense has at least three allomorphs, theyare. /t/, /d/, /id/ - Examples: worked, phoned and wanted. The variant of the morpheme depends on thepreceding sound in the word.The third level is lexicological which deals with words. Word may be a common term forlanguage and speech units. Some linguists offer specific terms for language and speech: "lexeme" forlanguage and “lex” for speech.The correlation between "lexeme" and "lex" is the same as it is between “phoneme” and “phone”and “morpheme” and “morph”. “Lexeme” is a language unit of the lexicological level which has anominative function. "Lex" is a speech unit of the lexicological level which has a nominative function.Thus, both lexeme and lex nominate something or name things, actions phenomena, quality,quantity and so on.Examples: tree, pen, sky, red, worker, friendship, ungentlemanly and so on.
An abstract lexeme"table" of language is used in speech as lex with concrete meaning of "writing table", "dinner table","round table", "square table", and so on. There may be "allolexes" like allophones and allomorphs.Allolexes are lexes that have identical or similar meanings but different forms, compare: start,commence, begin.To avoid confusion between "morpheme" and "lexemes" it is very important to remember thatmorphemes are structural units while lexemes are communicative units: morpheme are built ofphonemes and they are used to build words - lexemes.
Lexemes take an immediate part in shaping thethoughts, that is, in building sentences. Besides, lexemes may consist of one or more morphemes. Thelexeme "tree" consists of one morpheme while the lexeme "ungentlemanly" consists of four morphemes:un - gentle - man - ly.The next level is syntax - minor which deals with sentences. The term "Syntax - minor" iscommon one for both language and speech levels and their unit "sentence" is also one common term forlanguage and speech units.
The linguistics hasn't yet worked out separate terms for those purposes.The abstract notion "sentence" of language can have concrete its representation in speech which is also called"Sentence" due to the absence of the special term. Example: "An idea of writing a letter” on the abstract language level canhave its concrete representation in speech: John writes a letter. A letter is written by John.Since one and the same idea is expressed in two different forms they are called "allo - sentences". Some authorscall them grammatical synonyms.
Thus, sentence is language and speech units on the syntax - minor level, which has acommunicative function.In the same way the level syntax - major can be explained. The unit of this level is text - thehighest level of language and speech. "Syntax- major" represents both language and speech levels due tothe absence of separate term as well as "text" is used homogeneously for both language and speech units.The language and speech units are interconnected and interdependent.
This can easily be proved by the fact thatthe units of lower level are used to make up or to build the units of the next higher level: phones are used as buildingmaterial for morphs, and morphs are used to build lexes and the latter are used to construct sentences. Besides, thehomonyms that appear in the phonetical level can be explained on the following higher level, compare: - "er" is ahomonymous morph.
In order to find out in which meaning it is used we’ll have to use it on the lexicological level; if it isadded to verbs like "teacher", "worker" then it will have one meaning but if we use it with adjectives like “higher”, “lower”it will have another meaning. Before getting down to “the theoretical grammar” course one has to know the informationgiven above.6Study questions1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.How is the word "level" translated into your mother tongue?Why do we have to stratify language and speech?What is the difference between primary and secondary levels?Do all the linguists share the same opinion on the stratification of language?How many basic or primary levels are there in language and speech?What's the difference between language levels and speech levels?Are there special terms for language and speech levels?What does phonetical - phonological level study?What does morphological level study?What does lexicological level study?What does syntax - minor study?What does syntax - major study?Do the levels function separately in speech or they function as one body?What is the function of the word "allo"?7Lecture 2The Grammatical Structure of a LanguageProblems to be discussed- the meanings of the notion of "Grammatical Structure"- the lexical and grammatical meanings- the grammatical structure of languages from the point of view of general linguistics- the morphological types of languages and the place of the English language in this typology- the grammatical means of the English languagea) the order of wordsb) the functional wordsc) the stress and intonationd) the grammatical inflectionse) sound changesf) suppletionThe grammatical signals have a meaning of their own independent of the meaning of the notionalwords.
This can be illustrated by the following sentence with nonsensical words: Woggles ugged diggles.According to Ch. Fries (32) the morphological and the syntactic signals in the given sentencemake us understand that “several actors acted upon some objects”. This sentence which is a syntacticsignal, makes the listener understand it as a declarative sentence whose grammatical meaning is actor action - thing acted upon. One can easily change (transform) the sentence into the singular (A woggleugged a diggle.), negative (A woggle did not ugg a diggle.), or interrogative (Did a woggle ugg adiggle?) All these operations are grammatical. Then what are the main units of grammar - structure.Let us assume, for example, a situation in which are involved a man, a boy, some money, an actof giving, the man the giver, the boy the receiver, the time of the transaction - yesterday...Any one of the units man, boy, money, giver, yesterday could appear in the linguistic structure as subject.The man gave the boy the money yesterday.The boy was given the money by the man yesterday.The money was given the boy by the man yesterday.The giving of the money to the boy by the man occurred yesterday.Yesterday was the time of the giving of the money to the boy by the man."Subject" then is a formal linguistic structural matter.Thus, the grammatical meaning of a syntactic construction shows the relation between the words in it.We have just mentioned here "grammatical meaning", “grammatical utterance”.
The whole complex of linguisticmeans made use of grouping words into utterances is called a grammatical structure of the language.All the means which are used to group words into the sentence exist as a certain system; they are interconnectedand interdependent. They constitute the sentence structure.All the words of a language fall, as we stated above, under notional and functional words.Notional words are divided into four classes in accord with the position in which they stand in asentence.Notional words as positional classes are generally represented by the following symbols: N, V, A, D.The man landed the jet plane safelyNVA NDWords which refer to class N cannot replace word referring to class V and vice versa. These classes we shall callgrammatical word classes.Thus, in any language there are certain classes of words which have their own positions insentences. They may also be considered to be grammatical means of a language.So we come to a conclusion that the basic means of the grammatical structure of language are: a)sentence structure; b) grammatical word classes.In connection with this grammar is divided into two parts: grammar which deals with sentencestructure and grammar which deals with grammatical word - classes.
The first is syntax and the second morphology.W. Francis: "The Structure of American English".The Structural grammarian regularly begins with an objective description of the forms of language and movestowards meaning.An organized whole is greater than the mere sum of its parts.
(23), (30)The organized whole is a structural meaning and the mere sum of its parts is a lexical meaning.Five Signals of Syntactic Structure81. Word Order 2. Prosody -is the linear or time sequence in which words appear in an utterance.is the over-all musical pattern of stress, pitch, juncture in which the words of an utterance arespoken3. Function words - are words largely devoid of lexical meaning which are used to indicate variousfunctional relationships among the lexical words of an utterance4. Inflections -are morphemic changes - the addition of suffixes and morphological means concomitantmorphophonemic adjustments - which adopt words to perform certain structural function withoutchanging their lexical meanings5.
Derivational contrast is the contrast between words which have the same base but differ in the number andnature of their derivational affixesOne more thing must be mentioned here. According to the morphological classification Englishis one of the flexional languages. But the flexional languages fall under synthetical and analytical ones.The synthetical-flexional languages are rich in grammatical inflections and the words in sentences aremostly connected with each-other by means of these inflections though functional words and othergrammatical means also participate in this. But the grammatical inflections are of primary importance.The slavonic languages (Russian, Ukraine…) are of this type.The flectional-analytical languages like English and French in order to connect words to sentences make wide useof the order of words and functional words due to the limited number of grammatical flexions. The grammatical means order of words – is of primary importance for this type of languages.Lexical and Grammatical MeaningIn the next chapter we shall come to know that some morphemes are independent and directlyassociated with some object of reality while others are depended and are connected with the world ofreality only indirectly.
Examples:desk-s; bag-s; work-ed;lie-d …The first elements of these words are not dependent as the second elements. Morphemes of the 1sttype we’ll call lexical and meanings they express are lexical.The elements like -s, -ed, -d are called grammatical morphemes and meanings they express aregrammatical.Thus, lexical meaning is characteristic to lexical morphemes, while grammatical meanings arecharacteristic to grammatical morphemes.Grammatical meanings are expressed not only by forms of word – changing, i.e.
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