Теоретическая грамматика (803499), страница 3
Текст из файла (страница 3)
by affixation butby free morphemes that are used to form analytical word-form, e.g.He will study, I shall go.The meaning of shall, will considered to be grammatical since comparing the relations of invite invited - shall invite we can see that the function of shall is similar to that of grammatical morphemes -s,-ed.Study questions1. What do you understand by “grammatical structure of a language”?2. What is the difference between synthetic and analytical languages?3.
What are the basic grammatical means of the English language?4. Describe all the grammatical means of English.5. Compare the grammatical structure of English with the grammatical structure of your native language?6. What is the difference between lexical and grammatical meanings?9Lecture 3The Morphemic Structure of the English LanguageProblems to be discussed:- what operation is called "Morphemic analysis?- language and speech levels and their corresponding units- morpheme-morph-allomorph- types of morphemes from the point of view of their:a) functionb) number correlation between form and meaning.There are many approaches to the questions mentioned above.
According to Zellig Harris(27)"The morphemic analysis is the operation by which the analyst isolates minimum meaningful elements inthe utterances of a language, and decides which occurrences of such elements shall be regarded asoccurrences of "the same" element".The general procedure of isolating the minimum meaningful elements is as follows:Step 1. The utterances of a language are examined (obviously) not all of them, but a sampling which we hope willbe statistically valid. Recurrent partials with constant meaning (ran away in John ran away and Bill ran away) arediscovered; recurrent partials not composed of smaller ones (way) are alternants or morphs. So are any partials notrecurrent but left over when all recurrent ones are counted for.
Every utterance is composed entirely of morphs. Thedivision of a stretch of speech between one morph and another, we shall call a cut.Step 2. Two or more morphs are grouped into a single morpheme if they:a) have the same meaning;b) never occur in identical environments andc) have combined environments no greater than the environments of some single alternant in the language.Step 3. The difference in the phonemic shape of alternants of morphemes are organized and stated; this constitutesmorphophonemicsCompare the above said with the conception of Ch.
Hockett.Ch. Hockett (28):Step 1. All the utterances of the language before (us) the analyst recorded in some phonemic notation.Step 2. The notations are now examined, recurrent partials with constant meaning are discovered; those notcomposed of smaller ones are morphs. So are any partials not recurrent but left over when all recurrent ones are accountedfor: therefore every bit of phonemic material belongs to one morphs or another. By definition, a morph has the samephonemic shape in all its occurrences; and (at this stage) every morph has an overt phonemic shape, but a morph is notnecessarily composed of a continuous uninterrupted stretch of phonemes.
The line between two continuous morphs is a cut.Step 3. Omitting doubtful cases, morphs are classed on the basis of shape and canonical forms are tentativelydetermined.Step 4. Two or more morphs are grouped into a single morpheme if they fit the following grouping - requirements:a) they have the same meaning;b) they are in non-contrastive distribution;c) the range of resultant morpheme is not unique.Step 5. It is very important to remember that if in this procedure one comes across to alternative possibilities,choice must be based upon the following order of priority:a) tactical simplicityb) morphophonemic simplicityc) conformity to canonical forms.Thus the first cut of utterance into the smallest meaningful units is called morph. The morphs thathave identical meanings are grouped into one morpheme.
It means the morphs and morphemes arespeech and language units that have both form (or shape) and meanings. The smallest meaningful unit oflanguage is called a morpheme while the smallest meaningful unit of speech is called a morph. There’s anotion of allomorph in linguistics. By allomorphs the linguists understand the morphs that have identicalmeanings and that are grouped into one morpheme. There may be another definition of the allomorphs:the variants (or options, or alternants) of a morpheme are called allomorphs.Compare the above said with Harris’s opinion.
(27)Some morphs, however, and some may be assigned simultaneously to two (or more) morphemes. An emptymorph, assigned to no morpheme. (All the empty morphs in a language are in complementary distribution and have thesame meaning (none). They could if there were any advantages in it, be grouped into a single empty morpheme (but onewhich had the unique characteristic of being tactically irrelevant), must have no meaning and must be predicable in termsof non-empty morphs. A portmanteau morphs must have the meanings of two or more morphemes simultaneously, and10must be in non-contrastive distribution with the combination of any alternant of one of the member morphemes and anyalternant of the other (usually because no such combination occur).The difference in the phonemic shape of morphs as alternants of morphemes are organized andstated; this (in some cases already partly accomplished in Step 1) constitutes morphophonemics.In particular, portmanteaus are compared with the other alternants of the morphemes involved, and ifresemblances in phonemic shape and the number of cases warrant, morphs of other than overt phonemic content arerecognized, some of the portmanteaus being thus eliminated.The Types of MorphemesMorphemes can be classified from different view-points:1.
functional2. number correlation between form and contentFrom the point of view of function they may be lexical and grammatical. The lexical morphemesare those that express full lexical meaning of their own and are associated with some object, quality,action, number of reality, like: lip, red, go, one and so on.
The lexical morphemes can be subdivided intolexical - free and lexical - bound morphemes. The examples given above are free ones; they are used inspeech independently. The lexical-bound ones are never used independently; they are usually added tosome lexical-free morphemes to build new words like- friend-ship, free-dom, teach-er, spoon-ful and soon.
Taking into account that in form they resemble the grammatical inflections they may be also calledlexical - grammatical morphemes. Thus lexical - bound morphemes are those that determine lexicalmeanings of words but resemble grammatical morphemes in their dependence on lexical - freemorphemes. The lexical - bound morphemes are means to build new words.The grammatical morphemes are those that are used either to connect words in sentences or toform new grammatical forms of words. The content of such morphemes are connected with the world ofreality only indirectly therefore they are also called structural morphemes, e.g., shall, will, be, have, is, (e)s, -(e)d and so on. As it is seen from the examples the grammatical morphemes have also twosubtypes: grammatical - free and grammatical - bound.
The grammatical - free ones are used in sentencesindependently (I shall go) while grammatical - bound ones are usually attached to some lexical - freemorphemes to express new grammatical form, like: girl's bag, bigger room, asked.From the point of view of number correlation between form and content there may be overt, zero,empty and discontinuous morphemes.By overt morpheme the linguists understand morphemes that are represented by both form andcontent like: eye, bell, big and so on.Zero morphemes are those that have (meaning) content but do not have explicitly expressedforms.
![](https://s.studizba.com/z.php?f=/templates/si/i/noavatar.png&w=100&h=100&t=1"){kind=avatar}
