Теоретическая грамматика (803499), страница 4
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These morphemes are revealed by means of comparison:ask – askshigh -higherIn these words the second forms are marked: "asks" is a verb in the third person singular which isexpressed by the inflection "s". In its counterpart there's no marker like "s" but the absence of the markeralso has grammatical meaning: it means that the verb "ask" is not in the third person, singular number.Such morphemes are called "zero".
In the second example the adjective "higher" is in the comparativedegree, because of the "- er" while its counterpart "high" is in the positive degree, the absence of themarker expresses a grammatical meaning, i.e. a zero marker is also meaningful, therefore it's a zeromorpheme.There are cases when there's a marker which has not a concrete meaning, i.e.
there's neitherlexical nor grammatical meaning like: statesman. The word consists of three morphemes: state - s - man.The first and third morphemes have certain meanings. But "s" has no meaning though serve as aconnector: it links the first morpheme with the third one. Such morphemes are called empty. Thus emptymorphemes are those that have form but no content.In contemporary English there are cases when two forms express one meaning like:He is writing a letterTwo morphemes in this sentence "is" and " - ing" express one meaning: a continuous action.Such morphemes are called discontinuous.Thus there are two approaches to classify morphemes: functional and number correlation between form andcontent.The first one can be shown in the following scheme:11MorphemeslexicalfreegrammaticalboundfreeboundThe second one can also be shown in the same way:formmeaningovert++MorphemesZero+empty+-discontinuous+++Study questions1.
What operation is called "morphemic analysis?"2. What are the procedures for revealing morphemes suggested by Z. Harris and Ch. Hockett?3. What is a morpheme?4. What is a morph?5. What is an allomorph?6. What are the criteria to classify morphemes?7. What morphemes do you know according to the functional classification?8. What types of morphemes are distinguished according to the criterion of number correlation between form and content?12Lecture 4The Grammatical CategoriesProblems to be discussed:- what is categorization- what linguistic phenomenon is called a "grammatical category"?- what is "opposition"?- the types of grammatical categories.Any research presupposes bringing into certain order the material being studied. The issue underthe consideration is also an attempt to generalize the grammatical means of language.There are many conceptions on the problem today.
According to B. Golovin (13) “a grammatical category is a reallinguistic unity of grammatical meaning and the means of its material expression”. It means that in order to call a linguisticphenomenon a grammatical category there must be a grammatical meaning and grammatical means.M.Y. Blokh (6), (7) explains it as follows: “As for the grammatical category itself, it presents, thesame as the grammatical "form", a unity of form (i.e. material factor), and meanings (i.e. ideal factor)and constitutes a certain signemic system.More specifically the grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammaticalmeaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms.The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed by the so - called “grammaticaloppositions”.The opposition (in the linguistic sense) may be defined as a generalized correlation of lingualforms by means of which a certain function is expressed.
The correlated elements (members) of theopposition must possess two types of features:common features and differential features. Common features serve as the basis of contrast whiledifferential features immediately express the function in question.The grammatical categories are better to explain by comparing them with logical categories. The grammaticalcategories are opposed to logical ones. The logical categories are universal for all the languages. Any meanings can beexpressed in any language. For instance there's a logical category of possession.
The meaning of possession can beexpressed in all the languages, compare: My book (English) - Моя книга (Russian) - Менинг китобим (Uzbek).As it is seen from the examples the meaning of possession in English and Russian is expressed, by the possessivepronouns (lexical means) while in Uzbek it can be expressed either by the help of a discontinuous morpheme (...нинг ...им)or by one overt morpheme (…им). This category is grammatical in Uzbek but lexical in the other two languages. Thus theuniversal logical categories can be expressed by grammatical and non - grammatical (lexical, syntactic) means.
Thegrammatical categories are those logical ones that are expressed in languages by constant grammatical means.The doctrines mentioned above one - side approach to the problem. It is a rather complicatedissue in the general linguistics. But unfortunately we don't have universally acknowledged criteria tomeet the needs of individual languages.One of the most consistent theories of the grammatical categories is the one that is suggested by L. Barkhudarov.(2), (3)According to his opinion in order to call a linguistic phenomenon a grammatical category there must be thefollowing features:- general grammatical meaning;- this meaning must consist of at least two particular meanings;- the particular meanings must be opposed to each - other:- the particular meanings must have constant grammatical means to express them.Thus, any linguistic phenomenon that meets these requirements is called a grammatical category.English nouns have a grammatical category of number.
This category has all the requirements that arenecessary for a grammatical category:1. it has general grammatical meaning of number;2. it consists of two particular meanings; singular and plural;3. singular is opposed to plural, they are antonymous;4. singular and plural have their own constant grammatical means:singular is represented by a zero morpheme and plural has the allomorphs like (s), (z), (iz). There are some other means toexpress singular and plural in English but they make very small percentage compared with regular means. Schematicallythis can be shown as follows:Number0singular(s), (z), (iz)plural13Another example. In English adjectives there's one grammatical category - the degrees ofcomparison.
What features does it have?1. It has a general grammatical meaning: degrees of comparison;2. The degrees of comparison consist of three particular meanings: positive, comparative and superlative;3. They are opposed to each - other;4. They have their own grammatical means depending on the number of syllables in the word.If in the category of number of nouns there are two particular meanings, in the grammaticalcategory of degrees of comparison there are three.Thus, a grammatical category is a linguistic phenomenon that has a general grammatical meaning consisting of atleast two particular meanings that are opposed to each - other and that have constant grammatical means of their own toexpress them.Study questions1.
Why do we categorize the grammatical meanings?2. Is there one conception of grammatical categories that is shared by all the scientists or are there many approaches?3. Whose conceptions on grammatical category do you know?4. What are the main requirements for the grammatical category?5. Comment the grammatical categories of case of nouns; voice, aspect, order of verbs.6.
What types of grammatical categories do you know?14Lecture 5The Parts of SpeechProblems to be discussed:- brief history of grouping words to parts of speech- contemporary criteria for classifying words to parts of speech- structural approach to the classification of words (the doctrine of American descriptive School)- notional and functional parts of speechA thorough study of linguistic literature on the problem of English parts of speech enables us toconclude that there were three tendencies in grouping English words into parts of speech or into formclasses:1.2.3.Pre - structural tendency;Structural tendency;Post - structural tendency;1.
Pre - structural tendency is characterized by classifying words into word - groups according totheir meaning, function and form. To this group of scientists H. Sweet (42), O. Jespersen (33), (34), O.Curme (26), B. Ilyish (15) and other grammarians can be included.2. The second tendency is characterized by classification of words exclusively according to theirstructural meaning, as per their distribution. The representatives of the tendency are: Ch.
Fries (31), (32),W. Francis (30), A. Hill (44) and others.3. The third one combines the ideas of the two above-mentioned tendencies. They classify wordsin accord with the meaning, function, form; stem-building means and distribution (or combinability). Tothis group of scientists we can refer most Russian grammarians such as: Khaimovitch and Rogovskaya(22), L. Barkhudarov and Shteling (4) and others. (25)One of the central problems of a theoretical Grammar is the problem of parts of speech.
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