Roland A. - PVD for microelectronics (779636), страница 2
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .L o n g T h r o w Deposition Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C o l l i m a t e d Sputter Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Chapter 77.17.27.37.47.5Sputtering Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .E v o l u t i o n of P V D Tools for Microelectronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Generic P V D Cluster Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .The T e c h n o l o g y of P V D Cluster Tools . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300 m m P V D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .P V D Process M a p p i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C o s t - o f - O w n e r s h i p (COO) . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Process M o d e l i n g for M a g n e t r o n Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .Cathode Surface Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Transport M o d e l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .353354356CONTENTS10.310.4T h e Water S u r f a c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Conclusion .......................................................References .......................................................C h a p t e r 1111.111.211.311.411.511.611.711.8IndexS p u t t e r i n g Targets . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Target F a b r i c a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Target C o o l i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Target B u r n - I n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Target C o m p o s i t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Target Purity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Target U t i l i z a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Microstructural Engineering ..........................................Particle G e n e r a t i o n . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .References ......................................................................................................................vii359371372375376378383384387389392396399401This Page Intentionally Left BlankPrefaceFor more than a century, the physical vapor deposition (PVD) processknown as sputtering has been applied to industrial thin film coating and,since the early 1970's, has been a key element of microelectronic fabrication.
Currently, PVD is the established method of depositing metal contacts, barriers, and interconnects used in advanced silicon integrated circuits (ICs) such as microprocessor chips with clock speed greater than500 MHz and DRAM memory chips storing nearly 1 Gigabit of information. These and other demanding applications of PVD technology have ledto the development of sophisticated vacuum-integrated PVD productiontools and a global market for PVD equipment in excess of $ lB.As the millenium approaches, the IC industry is faced with the economicand technical challenge of fabricating ultralarge scale integrated (ULSI)devices having minimum feature size 0.18/zm. Additional challenges areposed by the increase in Si wafer size from 200 mm to 300 mm, the replacement of AI alloy interconnects with Cu interconnects, and the relatedrequirements for Cu diffusion barrier films and damascene processing.
Inorder to meet the metallization challenge of ULSI devices, PVD will needto perform better than ever before.In view of the large established base of PVD hardware and the manytechnical and cost advantages of sputter deposition, both users and suppliers have continued to push PVD technology to meet the challenge of coating and/or filling high aspect ratio features on ULSI devices. Activity todate has included modifications of conventional PVD hardware such ascollimation (see chapter 3), extensions of PVD processing such as hightemperature reflow and high pressure extrusion, as well as entirely newconcepts such as directional deposition from ionized metal plasmas (seechapter 5) and the fusion of PVD and chemical vapor deposition (CVD)methods to take advantage of the best of both worlds (see chapter 9). Allthings considered, this an extremely exciting time to be involved in the development and application of PVD technology!Given this resurgence of interest in PVD technology, the authors feltthat an up-to-date monograph on the topic would be timely and well received.
It is true that a number of excellent handbooks on general thin filmxPREFACEtechnology have been published with specific chapter offerings on the underlying physics of sputtering, the design of magnetron plasma sources,and the application of PVD to a variety of industrial coating applications.However, virtually all of these treatments are now over 10 years out ofdate and do not include many of the exciting developments in PVD hardware and processing that have recently occurred, and that comprise muchof the present book.
Also, to our knowledge, no single volume on the application of PVD to microelectronics was available.Another goal was to provide an historical and technical perspective onPVD that would be of value to persons who had either recently entered thefield or who do not regularly attend scientific meetings where advancedPVD technology is discussed. For example, a receptive audience should befound among process engineers and technicians, product support personnel, and the sales and marketing staff of suppliers of PVD equipment andcomponents such as vacuum pumps, pressure gauges, power supplies, robotic wafer handlers and gas delivery systems that are used in a modern,vacuum-integrated PVD cluster tool. We also hoped that the book wouldappeal to research scientists and R&D staff who were familiar with thetechnology of PVD but not with emerging trends in the field as applied tomicroelectronics.To keep the book focused, we have only treated the application of PVDto silicon-based microelectronics.
As a result, we do not discuss applications of PVD to digital electronics based on GaAs. Similarly, applicationsof PVD outside of conventional microelectronics, such as flat panel display technology or magnetic storage disk coating, are only mentionedbriefly.While the focus of PVD for Microelectronics is clearly on PVD, thebook is not intended to be an in-depth, academic treatment of the subject(we have however given extensive references to more scholarly articlesand monographs in each chapter).
Instead, our aim was to present thereader with a modern overview of the field, covering a wide range of topics, and providing a blend of theoretical and practical knowledge. We havealso paid attention throughout to the commercial implications of the technology, discussing such topics as cost-of-ownership and the historicalgrowth in size of the IC and PVD equipment markets. Finally, we havetried to put a PVD spin on thin film issues to avoid duplicating information that is readily available in copious books and articles on the materialsscience of thin films used in microelectronics. The overall result is that thisbook is closer in spirit to a textbook than a treatise, and could serve as thebasis for a shortcourse on PVD or as an adjunct to training on PVD equipment or processing.PREFACExiA number of features differentiate this book from other technical treatments of PVD and increase its usefulness.
For example, we have made extensive reference to articles appearing in trade magazines such as SolidState Technology and Semiconductor International to provide relevant material that is not always indexed and therefore may not be readily accessible. Comments that are either historically interesting (e.g. the origin of theword "sputtering") or deserving of special attention for pedagogic reasons(e.g. the quantitative difference between atomic and weight percent of anelement in a sputter target) have been boxed and set off from the main text.Citations have been given in the most complete form possible and includethe full title of the article cited, a listing of all authors, and inclusive pagenumbers as opposed to only the starting page number.Material has been organized in a logical progression.
Chapter 1 gives abroad-brush introduction to use of PVD in advanced microelectronic fabrication, with suggested sources of additional information on the field.Chapters 2, 3, and 4 then provide a conceptual understanding of thephysics of sputtering, plasma discharges, and plasma sputter sources thatset the stage for subsequent chapters on hardware (Chapter 5) and process(Chapters 6-8), including exciting hardware/process developments thathave been developed to improve coating and/or filling of high-aspect-ratiofeatures.
Chapter 9 also concentrates on process, but is organized by material-beginning with mainstream applications such as A1 alloys andTiffiN, and proceeding to advanced materials such as Cu and TaJTaN barriers. Chapter 10 deals with theoretical modeling or simulations of PVD.Finally, Chapter 11 discusses sputter target technology.
The material inChapter 11 could have been included as part of an earlier chapter; however,we wanted to set this topic apart due to the critical role of the target in theoverall PVD process.PVD for Microelectronics is designed to be read as a coherent monograph and not as a collection of separate articles submitted by differentauthors or research groups. Nevertheless, to achieve a consistency ofstyle and to take advantage of the authors' complementary knowledge ofthe field, each author was responsible for writing a given chapter as follows: the text and figures for chapters 1, 4, 5, 7, 9, and 11 were preparedby Ron Powell, while those for chapters 2, 3, 6, 8, and 10 were preparedby Stephen Rossnagel.
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