Computer Science. The English Language Perspective - Беликова (1176925), страница 20
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Gradually, as use of the ARPANET’s protocol spread,gateways were created to connect it to other networks such asthe National Science Foundation’s NSFnet. The growth of thenetwork was also spurred by the creation of useful applicationsincluding e-mail and Usenet, a sort of bulletin-board service.Meanwhile, a completely different world of online networkingarose during the 1980s in the form of local bulletin boards, oftenconnected using a store-and-forward system called FidoNet,and proprietary online services such as CompuServe andAmerica On-line.
At first there were few connections betweenthese networks and the ARPANET, which had evolved into ageneral-purpose network for the academic community underthe rubric of NSFnet. (It was possible to send e-mail betweensome networks using special gateways, but a number ofdifferent kinds of address syntax had to be used.)118In the 1990s, the NSFnet was essentially privatized, passingfrom government administration to a corporation that assigneddomain names.
However, the impetus that brought the Internetinto the daily consciousness of more and more people was thedevelopment of the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee at theEuropean particle research laboratory, CERN. With a standardway to display and link text (and the addition of graphics andmultimedia by the mid-1990s), the Web is the Internet as far asmost users are concerned. What had been a network foracademics and adventurous professionals became a mainstreammedium by the end of the decade.ApplicationsA number of applications are (or have been) importantcontributors to the utility and popularity of the Internet.• E-mail was one of the earliest applications on the ancestralARPANET and remains the single most popular Internetapplication.
Standard e-mail using SmTP (Simple mail TransferProtocol) has been implemented for virtually every platformand operating system. In most cases once a user has entered aperson’s e-mail address into the “address book,” e-mail can besent with a few clicks of the mouse. While failure of theoutgoing or destination mail server can still block transmissionof a message, e-mail today has a high degree of reliability.• Netnews (also called Usenet, for UNIX User Net- work) is ineffect the world’s largest computer bulletin board.
It began in1979, when Duke University and the University of NorthCarolina set up a simple mechanism for “posting” text files thatcould be read by other users. Today there are tens of thousandsof topical “newsgroups” and millions of messages (calledarticles). Although still impressive in its quantity of content,many Web users now rely more on discussion forums based onWeb pages.• Ftp (File Transport Protocol) enables the transfer of one ormore files between any two machines connected to the Internet.This method of file transfer has been largely supplanted by the119use of download links on Web pages, except for high-volumeapplications (where an ftp server is often operated “behind thescenes” of a Web link). FTP is also used by Web developers toupload files to a Web site.• Telnet is another fundamental service that brought theInternet much of its early utility.
Telnet allows a user at onecomputer to log into another machine and run a program there.This provided an early means for users at PCs or workstationsto, for example, access the Library of Congress catalog online.However, if program and file permissions are not set properlyon the “host” system, “telnet” can cause security vulnerabilities.The telnet user is also vulnerable to having IDs and passwordsstolen, since these are transmitted as clear (unencrypted) text.As a result, some online sites that once supported telnet accessnow limit access to Web-based forms.• Gopher was developed at the University of Minnesota andnamed for its mascot. Gopher is a system of servers thatorganize documents or other files through a hierarchy of menusthat can be browsed by the remote user.
Gopher became verypopular in the late 1980s, only to be almost completelysupplanted by the more versatile World Wide Web.• WAIS (Wide Area Information Service) is a gateway thatallows databases to be searched over the Internet. WAISprovided a relatively easy way to bring large data resourcesonline. It, too, has largely been replaced by Web-based databaseservices.• The World Wide Web as mentioned above is now the mainmeans for displaying and transferring information of all kindsover the Internet.
Its flexibility, relative ease of use, andubiquity (with Web browsers available for virtually allplatforms) has caused it to subsume earlier services. The utilityof the Web has been further enhanced by the development ofmany search engines that vary in thoroughness andsophistication.• Streaming media protocols allow for a flow of video and/oraudio content to users.
Player applications for Windows and120other operating systems, and growing use of high-speedconsumer Internet connections have made it possible to present“live” TV and radio shows over the Internet.• E-commerce, having boomed in the late 1990s and in the early2000s, continued to grow and proliferate later in the decade,finding new markets and applications and spreading into thedeveloping world• Blogs and other forms of online writing have becomeprevalent among people ranging from elementary schoolstudents to corporate CEOs.• Social networking sites such as mySpace and Facebook arealso very popular, particularly among young people.• Wikis have become an important way to share and build onknowledge bases .Notes:USA Defense Department – Министерство обороны СШАInterceptor system – система наведения перехватчиковUsenet –американский кабельный телеканал, запущенныйв 1971г.Fido Net – международная мобильная компьютерная сеть,построенная по технологии «из точки в точку».Bulletin board – электронная доска объявленийIDs – система обнаруживания вторженийA mainstream medium (MSM) - крупнейшие средствамассовой информацииCongress catalog online – онлайн доступ к каталогуБиблиотеки Конгресса США.CEO (Chief Executive Officer) – исполнительный директор.Assignments1.
Translate the sentences from the texts into Russian inwriting paying attention to the underlined words andphrases:1211. The Internet’s origins can be traced to a projectsponsored by the U.S. Defense Department.2. The solution was to break data up into individuallyaddressed packets that could be dispatched by routingsoftware that could find whatever route to thedestination was viable or most efficient.3. Meanwhile, a completely different world of online networking arose during the 1980s in the form of localbulletin boards, often connected using a store-andforward system called FidoNet.4.
In most cases once a user has entered a person’s e-mailaddress into the “address book,” e-mail can be sent witha few clicks of the mouse.5. While failure of the outgoing or destination mail servercan still block transmission of a message, e-mail todayhas a high degree of reliability.6.
Gopher was developed at the University of Minnesotaand named for its mascot.7. Gopher became very popular in the late 1980s, only tobe almost completely supplanted by the more versatileWorld Wide Web.8. As long as the programs they run follow the rules of theprotocol, the computers can be connected by a variety ofphysical means including ordinary and special phonelines, cable, and fiber optics.9. What had been a network for academics andadventurous professionals became a mainstreammedium by the end of the decade.2.
Answer the following questions:1. What definition can you give to the “Internet”?2. What was the origin of the Internet?3. What brought the Internet to the daily life of ordinarypeople?1224. What are the general applications of the Internet?5. How do you see the prospects of the Internet?3. Translate into English:Своим появлением Интернет обязан Министерствуобороны США и секретным исследованиям, которыепроводились в 1969 году с целью протестировать методысохранениякомпьютерныхсетейприпомощидинамической перемаршрутизации сообщений привоенных действиях. Первой в своем роде была сетьARPAnet, которая объединила в Калифорнии три сети понабору правил, которые были названы InternetProtocol(сокращенно IP или Интернет-протоколом).Далее, в 1972 году доступ был открыт дляисследовательских организаций и университетов, послеэтого сеть смогла объединить 50 исследовательскихорганизаций и университетов, которые имели контракты сМинистерством обороны США.Затем, в 1973 году сеть смогла вырасти домеждународных масштабов, потому что объединяла сети,которые находились в Норвегии и Англии.
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