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The part of thesentencethat begins with the time expression is calledthe'time clause'.Howmanymachinesareinhere?whenprototype?desÍgnedtheWe use whento refer to actions that happen at almostthe same time. One action is an immediateconsequence of another. Note that when the timeclause comes first, it must be followed by a comma.Whenyou turn the handle,the wheel startsto move.Who=questionword (+subject)+main verb4 usedto,usedfor, made of,made ÍromWe use usedtoandusedfortodescribehow materialsareused.We use madeof andmadefrom to talk aboutthe materialsthat a productconsistsof.usedtoWe can change the two parts of the sentence around,butwhen must always come before the first action inthe sequenceofevents.The wh eeI starts to m ove whe n y ou turn the handle.\Alhenthe time clause comes later in the sentence,wedo not use a comma to separatethe two clauses.Rubberis usedto makethe pedals.as=subject+is / are usedto+infrnitiveWe use as to talk about two actions that happen at thesame time.
The position of the time clause can change,in the same way asfor when.As the wheeI turns, it g enerates electricity.The wheelgenerateselectricityas it turns.u'edÍorLeatheris usedfor making footballs.=is / are usedfor +-ing formWe can use usedto andusedfor ina similar way.Nylon is usedto make/ usedfor makÍnga lot ofdffirent products.Note:Don'tconfusetheseexpressionswithbe usedto +-ingform,which means'beaccustomedto'.madeolSomebottlesare made of plastic.=subject+is/aremadeof+nounmadelromSteelis made fromiron and carbon.=subject+is / are madeÍrom+nounwhileMadefrom emphasizesthe resultof a process,Note that in the second as sentence,we need to use asubject the wheel,becauseby changing the order oftheclauses, it is no longer clear what it refers to.belore andalterBeforeandafreralsoindicatethe sequenceof events,but thereis not necessarilysucha closetimerelationshipas with when andas.Beforeandaftersimply indicatethat one actionhappenedat anunspecifiedtime beforeanother.Again,the positionof the time clausecan change.you mustreadtheBeforeyou operatethemachine,manualYoumustreadthemanualbeforeyou operatethemachine.l l 8 C r a m m a rr e f e r e n c eTrevor BaylÍsdeveloped his clockwork radÍoafter hevisÍtedAfrica.After he visitedAfrica,TrevorBaylis developedhÍsclockwork radÍo'7 PresentPassiveOne way to describe processesis to use the PresentSimple.Before and after canbefollowed by the -ing forminstead of subject + verb.Theplastic travels through the barrel.The mould is now cool.Before operatÍngthe machine,you must read themanual.After visitÍngAfrica,Trevor Baylis developedhisclockwork radio.However,it is more common to use the Passive.This isbecause,when talking about a process,it is often notimportant or relevant to mention who performs anaction.6 DescribingfunctionWe use used to,(used)for,usedas to describethefunction of an object in positive and negativesentences,and in questions.usedto + infinitiveAtorch Ísusedto provide light.Tasersaren't used to protect computers.Is a baton usedto monitor criminals?(used)for+-ingÍolmThis expression has the same meanin g as be usedto +Ínfinitive.Handcuffs are (used)for restrainingsomeone.The baton Ísn,t(used)for monitoring criminals.Is a PIN (used)for protecting cards?Note that although we can leave out used inbe usedfor,we cannot leave out used in the expression be used to.Note: Don't confuse these expressionswith be usedto +-íngform, which means.be accustomedto,.usedas + nounThis expression also describesthe purpose of an object,to show that it is similar to the function of anotherobject.The belt is used as a weapon.The handcuffs aren't used as a weapon.Is the torch used as a signal?We cannot use this expression if the two objectshaveexactly the same function.wor@.Some verbs,such as verbs which do not take an object,e.g.travel,orverbsof thinking and feeling,e.g.be,cannot usually be used in the Passive.wor Theplastic ist+aaelW through the barrel.PresentPassivePositiveThedoughiscutinto loaves.Theloavesareleftto cool.= subject + am / is / are + past participleNegativeThe plasticisn't meltedThe screwsaren't pushed back bythe ram.by the hydraulic fluid.= subject + am / is / are not + past participleShort answersQuestionsIsthehopper filled withplastic? Yes,itis.No, it isn't.Are the loavessent totheshops? Yes,theyare.No, thev aren't.=Am / Is / Are + subject + past participleHowis the plastic melted?= O_uestionword + am / is / are + subject + pastnerfirinlpAlthough in general contexts the Passive can have 1/you / we asthe subject,when talking about processesthe subjectis generally the pronoun it or they,or asingular or plural noun.Note:The Passivecan be followed with by ífwe need toclarify who or what has causedthe action.C r a m m a rr e f e r e n c e1 1 98 Prediction:wÍII,mdf, mÍghtwÍllWe can use the short form mightn,tínspoken English,but there is no short formfor may not.Trffic congestionmÍghtn,tbe an easyproblem to solve.We use wi//to talk about future developmentsthat weare certain about.loor Trafficcongestiontreya+tbean easyproblem tosolve.PositiveMay is not used when We aÍeaskÍngpeople for theiropinions, in order to avoid confusion with may ínreouesls.One sensor willstopthe driverfallingasleep.=subject+ will + infinitive9 Safety signsand safety adviceNegativeTraffic congestionwill not bean easy problem tosolve.= subject + wiII not (won'tl + infinitiveQuestionsHowwillthecarofthefuturebepowered?Willthecarofthefuturebeverydifferent?= (questionword + ) will + subject + infinitivemayandmÍghtWe use may and mÍghtwhen we are less certain aboutfuture developments,i.e.when we think thatsomething is possÍblerather than definÍte.May is moreformal than might,butthere is little difference in theIevelof possibilitythey contain.PositiveNo +.Íngor nounThÍsis a direct command to the public, and is found onsigns in a range ofgeneral and industrial contexts.No smokingNo admittance!mperativeThÍstype of command is not as strict as no + -Íng,andcan be found in more Ínformalsigns,or in safetyhandbooks.PositiveWeara safety helmet.= infinitiveNegativeA hybrid carmay / mightbe the best choÍce'= subject + may / mighf + infinitiveNegativeAnoÍse-freebike maynot/mightnotbepopularwith bikers.= subject + may / might + not + infinitiveQuestionsMightThere are severalways of giving instructions andadvice Ínsafety signs and notices.hydrogen fuel cellsget cheaper?Do not smoke here.=Do not + infrnitiveThe short form of Do notis Don,t'ThÍsis usedcommonly in spoken English and in more informaladvice or commands.Don't keepyour mobilephone switchedon.We can use always andneverto make a commandstronger.In a positive command, aiways comes justbefore the verb.=Might + subject + infinitiveAlways check thefilters.HowmightIn a negative sentence,never replacesdo not / don't.thecarofthefuture bepowered?= question word + might + subject + infinitiveNever operatethe chainsaw without ear protection.1 2 O C r a m m a rr e f e r e n c emustMust expressesa strong obligation,and authority,andis used in both the Active and Passive.Remember thatmust does not change in the he /sh e / Ítforms,Active formYoumustwear a safetyhelmet.There are two types of relative clause: defining andnon-defining.Defining relativeclauseThis tells us information about an object or person thatidentifies them.ThÍsis a scannerwhich readsbooks.(=there are severaltypes of scanner,and this is one that reads books)= subject + must (not) +infinitiveThere,sthe lab technicÍanwho works Ínthe laboratorywith me.
(=there are severallab technlcians, and he /she is the one that works with me)Passive formNon-defining relativeclauseUnauthorizedpersons mustnotusethismachine.Eye protectionmustbeworn.Fireextinguishersmustnotbeusedinthisarea.= subject + must (not)+be +pastparticipleWe can also use always and never with must.
In boththe Active and Passive,always andneverfollow must.You must always wear a hard hat when work Ísgoing onoverhead.Personnel must never leave this equipment swítchedon.High visibility clothÍngmust always be worn tn thísarea.Chemicals must never be stored near openJlames.10RelativeclausesWe use a relative clause as a means of joining twopieces of informationtogetherwithin one sentence.The Ultracane is a device.This devicehelps blind people.Relative clause:The Ultracane is a devicewhichhelpsblind people.A cardiacpatÍentis a person.Theperson is being treatedfor a heartproblem.Relative clause:Á cardiacpatient is a person who ÍsbeÍngtreatedfor a heartproblem,In relative clauses,we use the relative pronouns whowhen the subject is a person,or which when the subjectis an object.Note that the subject of who andwhich can be singularor plural.Ultracanesare deviceswhichhelp blind people.Cardiacpatients are people who are being treatedforheart problems.This tells us supplementary information about anobject or person.The relative pronoun who or which rsalways precededby a comma.This is a scanner,whichreads books.(=there is only onetype of scanner,and it happens to read books)There'sthe lab technician,whoworks in the laboratorywith me.
(=there is only one lab technician, and he /she works with me)11 should / shouldn'tWe use should andshould not (shouldn't)togive adviceand to offer an opinion.PositiveYoushouldkeepyour passwordsafe.= subiect + should + infinitiveNegativePeopleshouldn'tdownloadillegally.= subject + should + not (shouldn'tl + infinitiveQuestionsIShouldupdatemy virus protectionsoftware every monthTShort answersYes,I/you /he / she /it/they should.No,I / you / he / she / it /theyshouldn't.= Should + subject + ÍnfinitivetÁIhatshouldI do?\AIhoshould I complain to?= questionword+should+ subject + infinitÍveC r a m m a rr e f e r e n c el 2 lWe do not use the auxiliary do / doestoformthenegativeand questions.wor They den*+he+rlddownload illegally ...Nor De{+'he+rld...?13PastSimplev PresentPerfectPastSlmplePositiveWhen we use should to give an opinion, we use I think /I don't think + subject+ shou/d.I /You /He / She / It / We / TheyI thÍnkyou should buy the camera with 4 megapixels.I don,t think chíIdrenshould play violent video games.= subject + Past SimpleIn the second sentenceabove,it is also possibleto say Ithink + subject + shouldn't:I/ You / He / She / It / We / TheyWe use the Past Passiveto talk about systems andplocesSesÍnthe past.As with the Present Passive(Unit 7),we use the Past Passivewhen the action ismore important than the agent,or where the agent isnot known.PositiveWeldingwas doneShort answersDid you workmainlyindoors?Y e s I, / h e / s h e / i t / w e /they did.No,l/he/she/it/we/they didn't.=Did + subject + infinitiveWe use the Past Simple to talk about an action thathappened at a particular point in the past.onrrinmani\Negativewere not (weren't)inspectedinSignals.I operated dÍfferenttypesof equÍpment.(=it is clear thatthis person no longer operatesdifferent types ofbyhand.= subject + was / were + past participleCarsdidn'twork= subject+ did not (didn'tl + inflnitiveQuestions12PastPassiveher aninvitation.NegativeI think children shouldn,t play vÍolentvideogames.but this form is not as common as the first sentence.textedby robots.= subject + was / were not (wasn't / weren't)+ pastnr rti rinl eWith the Past Simple we can use expressions such asin + year,month, season,before,andafter.PresentPerfectPositiveQuestionsShort answersWere designs producedon computer?Yes,theywere.No,theyweren't.= Was / Were + subject + past partÍcipleHow were desÍgnsproduced7Ihave seenmany changes intelecommunications.= subject+ have / has + past participleNegativeShehasn't emailedme today.= question word + was / were + subject+ past participleWe can use by after a Passiveform to say who or whatcausedthe action in a process.= subject+ have / has not (haven't / hasn't) + pastpartÍcÍpIeSupplÍeswereorderedby rtaff' not by computer.QuestionsHave you spent timeinthe army?Yes,I/you/we/theyhave.Yes,he / she / it has.No,I/you/we/theyhaven't.No, he / she / it hasn't.1 2 2 C r a m m a rr e f e r e n c e=Have / Has + subject + past participleWe use the Present Perfectto talk about actions orexperiencesthat happened during a period of timefrom the past to the present.It is not important whenthey occurred.I've operated different typesof equipment.(=at somepoint in this person'slife, they have operateddifferenttypes of equipment, and possibly still do)Here,mustn't = it is a requirement of the job thatcandidates do not have less than three years'experience.Do not confuse this with don't have to +inf,nitive,which means that something lsn'tnecessarv.Short answersQuestionsMust candidates beBritish nationals?No,I/you/we/theydon't have to.We can begin talking about a topic in the PresentPerfect,then use the Past Simple to add details aboutwhen something happened.I've worked in Si.gnalssince 2003.Beforethat,I was aMechanic.for / sinceWe can use both the Past Simple and the PresentPerfectwith/or, and the Present Perfectwith s incetoanswer the question How /ong7Yes,I/ you / he I she / it /theymust.No, he / she / it doesn'thave to.=Must + subject+ infinitiveNote that in negative short answers,we say don't haveto rather than mustn't,becausewe want to say thatsomethÍngisn't necessary.shouldfor + períodof time, to say how long a period of timeIasted:foreight months,for two hourssÍnce+ point in time to say when a period of timestarted:since 2 o' clock,since 1.993,sinceyesterdayPositivePresent Perfect: I've been herefor a few months.Past Simple:Iwas inthe armyforfouryears.Present Perfect I've worked here sinceI was eiahteen.= subject +should+ infinitiveYoushouldhave experience of working withthis system.NegativeApplicants should not (shouldn't)14|ob ÍequiÍement'In addition to the functions of giving instructÍons(Unit 9) and advice (Unit 11),we can use must andshouldto describeessentíaIcharacteristicsthat arenecessaryfor a job or role.must= subject + should not (shouldn'tJ+ infinitiveQuestionsShould applÍcantshave a knowledge of publichealth issues?PositiveCandidates musthave a hearingdisability.speak French and German.Short answersYes,I/you / he / she /it / they should.No,I / you / we / theydon't have to.No, he / she / itdoesn't have to.= subject + musf + infinitive=Must + subject+ infinitiveNegativeNote that the negatÍveshort answer is the same as formust.Must is generally stronger than should, andmeans that a requirement is essential rather thanmerelv desirable.Applicantsmustn'thave less than three years'experrence.= subject + must not (mustn'tl + infinitiveGrammarreference12315PhrasalverbsPhrasalverbsconsistof a verb +adverbor preposition,suchas in,out,up,down,off on,which combineto forma singlemeaning.Phrasalverbsareusedveryfrequentlyin both spokenand written English.Themeaning of thetwowordstogether is not alwaysclear,for example putoff =to postponeor to delay.Somephrasalverbshavemorethan one meaning:carryout =to performan actioncarryout =totakeawayortotakeoutsideOneverb can be combinedwith differentadverbsorprepositionsto make differentphrasalverbs,e.g.setofiset out,setup.When phrasalverbshavean object,thepositionof theobjectchanges,ifit is a pronoun.Tryto workout theanswer.oR Trytoworktheanswetout.svt Tt1ttoworkítout,nor Tryto+rerftetÉ#.Otherverbsinthis groupinclude:carryout,closedown,cutdown,fiIlin,findout,giveup,look up,plug in,print out,put on,set up, shutoff, switchon / off,takeofitum dourn/ off,workoutHoweversomephrasalverbsmust putthe objectimmediatelyafterthe phrasalverb,e.g.Lookf or the ínformatÍon,Lookforít,NoT l€efriÜbr'11s1 W1 2 4 L i s t e n i n gs c r i p t sListeningscriptsUnit tListening- TechnologyandworkII can get patients'lab results - blood andbiochemistry - through the Health Serviceintranet.No delays,no need to wait forpaper copies.It'smuch faster.2My students can use the Internettopractisetheir German.
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