диссертация (1169135), страница 25
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Women, Religion and Culture in Iran. UK: Curzon Press. 2002. p. 21.Afary. J. Sexual Politics in Modern Iran. Cambridge University Press, 2009. P. 63-64.329Sedghi H. Women and Politics in Iran: Veiling, Unveiling, and Reveiling. Cambridge University Press, 2007.p.27.330Joseph S., Najmabadi A. Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Culture: Family, Law and Politics. Leiden-Boston,Brill, 2005. p.
513.331This S. Qajar Dynasty xiii. Children's upbringing in the Qajar Period. Encyclopedia Iranica. [Electronicresource]. — Mode of access: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/qajar-13-children-upbringing328106disgrace) to give birth to girls"332 . Since female body gained its identity inmaternity, her infertility caused her exclusion and the husband gained permissionfor second marriage.The obedient women as the object of sex, procreation and householdservices had to be socially invisible to have the "right as a citizen". Womendisappeared to have identity, which was bound to their role as wife and mother.Not only were they deprived of any rights to own a property, they did not owntheir children in case of divorce333. Scheiwiller acknowledges that women wereregarded as "objects of desire", passive bodies of penetrating erotic excitementrather than active agents of political excitement"334.
Dependence of women'sidentity to men rarely left any agency for them. Not only they were physicallybarred, they were mentally deprived of education, reading and writing abilities.The bodies being called as female were regulated to be objects to satisfy maledesire.As subjects to males, the female bodies directed their physical body care tosatisfying husband's desire. Female body regarded as "ritually unclean, requiredstrict observation, bathing, and seclusion during menstruation". "A woman's bodywas almost always associated with impurity because of her sexual and menstrualsecretions"335.
Women used various natural ways to have an acceptable body. Hairdying was a process span in two days. The first night, while mixed with rosewater,henna was applied and rinsed with oil before daybreak. The following evening thecolor was applied. Long hair was another female characteristic that gendered abody as female. With longer hair, a body enjoyed of more femininity. In the caseof insufficient hair, silk was used to weave the hair into braids. They also tattooed332Sedghi H.
Women and Politics in Iran: Veiling, Unveiling, and Reveiling. Cambridge University Press, 2007.p.27.333Milani F. Words Not Swords: Iranian Women Writers and the Freedom of Movement (Gender, Culture, andPolitics in the Middle East). Syracuse University Press, 2011. Pp.119 -121.334Scheiwiller S.G.
Liminalities of Gender and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century Iranian Photography. Taylor &Francis Ltd, 2016. p.74.335Afary. J. Sexual Politics in Modern Iran. Cambridge University Press, 2009. p. 26.107temporary and permanent beauty marks on their faces or bodies. The facial hairwas waxed or threaded by a threader known as wizard of love and luck"336.Against their veiled appearance outside the house, married womenconventionally put up makeups. The cosmetics were typically composed of 7items: Surmeh, which is "smoked carbon powder mixed with oil and applied towomen's eyelids and eyelashes.
Sefidab was a powder used to whiten the face, anda kind of it was used in bath as exfloiter of face and whole body. Henna was usedto dye the hair and nails, indigo or woad (wasme) was used to dye hair andeyebrows, gold spangles (zarak), and sorkhab to color the cheeks. These cosmeticshad a natural material with health benefits on the body. Number seven in Iranianculture refers to completion and all these seven items were applied to bride tocomplete her beauty to deserve the groom. Generally, body maintenance andbeauty standards were different from the current practices. In contrast to slimnessideal of this age, fat women were beauty standards. A woman's fat body meant thatshe had an affluent male supporter.Fig.
2. Anis el Doleh, Wife of Nasereddin shah336Joseph S., Afsaneh Najmabadi A. Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics(Encyclopaedia of Women and Islamic Cultures).Brill Academic Pub. Vol.2, 2003. pp. 36-37.108Iranian Women's cultural identity represented in their body afterConstitutionalismWomen's seclusion behind the curtains was penetrated by the initial sparks ofconstitutional revolution.
Paidar argues that the constitutional movement created aparticular vision of modern Iran. This particular version of modernization of Iran"created conceptual link between national independence and progress, andwomen's emancipation"337. The revolution inspired from one hand by those whostruggled to confront the absolute monarchy, and on the other hand by elites whowere influenced by western modernization.
Preliminary, women were "mobilizedby ulama, and they took part in anti-government strikes". The discursiveinterpretations of religion once demanded that female body be surrounded andsecluded by house walls, later it required their active presence. Under the name ofreligion or under the influence of western modernization, they broke the confiningwalls.Achieving their revolutionary goals, "later they incorporated someindependent demands, including the recognition of their anjomans (societies), thelaunching of girls' schools and suffrage rights"338. In fact, women displayed theiragencies when they stopped performing the role of seclusion.
Modified recitationof norms challenged the stability of traditional Islamic discourse.The schools founded in a modern sense undermined the authority of thetraditional religious schools (maktab). The religion that had inspired women'scollaboration in revolution against absolutism, abstained from helping women"form schools and associations" arguing that "women needed only a limitededucation to prepare them for their domestic chores"339.
Consequently, the numberof maktabs surpassed the limited number of modern schools.American missionary schools, established in 1895 in Iran, presented acourse called "Household Arts". Scientific domesticity empowered women by337Kandiyoti D. Women, Islam, and the State. Temple University Press, 1991.p.52.Sedghi H.
Women and Politics in Iran: Veiling, Unveiling, and Reveiling. Cambridge University Press, 2007.p.43.339See: Afary. J. Sexual Politics in Modern Iran. Cambridge University Press, 2009. 444p.338109emphasizing the nurturing qualities of mothers and their role in children'seducation. Early students confronted this curriculum of domestic science.
Theybelonged to most prominent and affluent families who left domesticity to servants.Nevertheless, reformers and Iranian elites embraced science of domesticity andchildcare. They held that mothers, as the trainer and guide of kids must be properlyeducated. Following a nationalist thought, they believed that modern Iran needededucated mothers to train the children and appropriately cultured wives whodeserve the educated modern men340.Whereas, both traditional and modern institutions emphasized the domesticfemale gender roles, the former confined women inside the house, discarding herfrom any social status and the second one encouraged a socially active womenwho performed her domestic roles even better. In fact, a body named as female,was a site where the struggling powers were imposed on.
The religious institutes intheir traditional perspective on women as "zai'feh or the weak sex and status asmoti'eh or those obedient to men's will"341 emphasized the subjectivity of femalebody who needed to be controlled by men. This marginalized class had beenenthused by religious institutes as auxiliary force in cases such as tobaccomovement so that the clerics would achieve their own goals. However, theseparticipations "propelled women's movements in Iran forward" and "as themovement grew women's democratic institutions grew with it"342. Their socialparticipation revealed that the "weak sex" have latent underestimated potentials.In midst of constitutional revolution, the encounter with European culture wasincreasing through western founded schools, travels to Europe and the penetrationof European goods, diplomats and thereby their ideas and lifestyle.
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