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The Iranian Constitutional Revolution 1906 – 1911. Columbia University Press, 1996. 80 p.82In Iran, in the years following Constitutional revolution and World War I,there were founded independent women's societies. They aimed at promotion ofwomen's social and cultural place and played a fruitful role in these respects:Anjoman-e Azadi-e Zanan (1907), Ettehadie-e Geibi-e Nesvan (1907),Anjoman-e Mokhaddarat-e Vatan (1910), Anjoman-e Nesvan-e Iran (1910),Anjoman-e Nesvan-e Vatan (1910), Sherkat-e Kheirie-e Khavatin-e Iran (1910),Ettehadie-e Nesvan (1911), Anjoman-e Hemmat-e Khavatin (1911), Shorae-eHeiat-e Khavatin-e Markazi (1911).In these years, female social and cultural activists in line with modernizationgoals of constitutional revolution, founded modern Western-like schools for girls.Elementary schools of Dushizegan (maidens), Namoos (honor), girls' schools ofEfatiye (Chastity) and Taragi (Progress)299.

They also established women'smagazines. In 1910 the first women's magazine under the title of Danesh waspublished. The magazines of that time include Danesh by Mrs. Kahhal, Shokoufeby Maryam Amid, Zaban-e Zanan by Sedige Dulatabadi, Sadat-e Nesvan byRoshanak Nodust, Nm-e Bnvan by Shahnaz Azad, Alame e Nesvan, and Nesvan-eVatankhah by Mohtaram Eskandari, Dokhtaran-e Iran by Zandokht Shirazi300.Females who embarked on the construction of modern schools includeSeddiqeh Dowlatabadi, Shams al-Moluk Javaher Kalam, Bibi Vazirof, TubaAzmudeh, Dorrat-ol-Ma’ali, Mahrokh Gowharshenas, Safiyyeh Yazdi, BibiKhanom Estarabadi, and Rowshanak Now’dust.

They faced considerableoppositions from traditionalists in the construction and preservation of their girlschools. Thus, in this historical period, it was a difficult task to establish suchschools301.،2931 ،5 ‫ شماره‬،‫ جامعه شناسی آموزش و پرورش‬،‫ سیر شکل گیری مدارس زنان در دوره مشروطه‬،‫ باغدار دلگشا علی‬،‫ زنجانی زاده هما‬299221-32 ‫صص‬Zanjanizade H.

The Course of Establishment of Girls' School during Constitutionalism. Jamee Shenasi-e Amuzeshva Parvaresh, Vol. 5, 2013. pp. 91-110..‫ موسسه مطالعات تاریخ معاصر ایران‬،‫ شکل گیری جمعیت زنان ایران در دوره قاجار پس از مشروطیت‬،‫ حمیرا‬،‫ رنجبر عمرانی‬300RanjbarOmrani H. Establishment of Iranian Women's Society in Qajar after Constitutionalism. Moasse-eMotaleat-e Tarikh-e Moaser-e Iran.

[Electronic resource]. — Mode of access: http://www.iichs.ir/s/192..212-83 ‫ صص‬،2987 ،9 ‫ شماره‬،‫ دانشنامه‬،‫ روند آموزش زنان از آغاز نوگرایی تا پایان عصر رضا شاه‬،‫ ترابی فارسانی سهیال‬30183Such organizations, societies, publications, and schools were founded bywomen cultural and social activists who belonged in the upper middle class ofTehran and other big cities, (such as Tabriz, Isfahan, Rasht, and Shiraz) and wereeducated.The course of the Constitutional Movement faced major disagreementsamong its traditionalist and open-minded Westernized leaders and, consequently,the rise of chaos and insecurity in the wake of World War I and the militaryoccupation of Iran, as well as the formation of decentralized political and separatistgroups, and eventually the discovery of oil in Iran.

All these led to theestablishment of the absolute, semi-modern Pahlavi government by Reza Khanwho was a military, authoritarian person in 1925302. As a result, women’s culturaland social activities underwent certain changes as influenced by semi-modernistconceptions which were prevalent in this period. The official policy in this periodwas that Iranian women had to comply with women’s culture in the West withregard to their education, clothing, and cultural and social activities under thesupervision of the absolute government of Reza Shah303.Until 1932, all independent cultural and social organizations of women aswell as independent and critical periodicals were closed, and such organizationscame to be supervised by the Ministry of Culture and other cultural organizationsaffiliated with the government or pro-governmental political parties, such Kanun-eBanovan (Center for Women) under the supervision of Reza Shah Pahlavi.The open cultural and social sea-changes of the period were mainly in linewith women's education.

They approved the ban on hijab in 1936, the ban on thetraditional education of women by religious clergies and realized Western modelsTorabiFarsani S. The Process of Women Education from the Beginning of Modernization until the End of RezaShah’s Era. Daneshnameh, vol. 3, 2008. pp. 89-101.‫ شماره‬،‫ پژوهشنامه علوم سیاسی‬،‫ الگوي نظري دولت مطلقه و پیدایي دولت مطلقه شبه مدرن در ایران‬،‫جباری نصیر حسن؛ میر احمدی منصور‬302.233-237 ‫ صص‬،2983 ،2JabbariNasir H., MirAhmadi M.

The Theoretical Pattern of the Absolute Government and the Formation of theSemi-Modern Absolute Government in Iran. Pazhuheshname-e Olum-e Siyasi, vol. 1, 2010. pp. 167-199..97 ‫ ص‬،‫ طرح نو‬:‫ تهران‬،‫ ترجمه عباس مخبر‬،‫ س اسله پهلوی و نیروهای مذهبی به روایت تاریخ کمبریج‬.)2972(‫آوری پیتر‬303Avery P. The Pahlavi Dynasty and Religious Forces in the Cambridge History of Iran. Tehran: Tarh-e N'o, 1991.37p.84of education and culture. There were a great number of governmental schools,women’s entrance to the university since the establishment of the modernuniversity in Tehran and Tabriz as well as other cities, and the limited deploymentof women in governmental bureaucracies and economics.In spite of attempts at Western-style modernization of cultural and socialactivities in the period of Pahlavi I between 1921 and 1941, the changes included asmall number of women in the society, and the prevalent social and culturalapproach was the traditional one in terms of women’s roles as wives and mothers.According to the first census in Iran in 1956, only 8 percent of women wereliterate at the time304.

The census may as well be extend to other cultural and socialconditions of women at the time.When the absolute government of Reza Shah was toppled down in 1925 andthe rise of a certain extent of freedom in the society, government-independentorganizations and cultural and social societies of women began to be formed again,such as the National Society of Women in 1926 and the Iranian Women League in1928.In 1932, the Women’s League joined the International Federation ofWomen, opening branches in all main cities of the country. Safiyyeh Firuzestablished the first Human Supporting Organization in Iran305.Despite widespread oppositions by clergies and traditionalists, womenreceived the rights to vote and to be elected as representatives in the parliamentand appointed as members of the cabinet.‫ صص‬،2939 ،2 ‫ شماره‬،‫ پژوهش نامه زنان‬،2991 ‫ تا‬2911 ‫ نگاهی به موقعیت زنان در دوره پهلوی از سال‬،‫ موسوی منصور‬،‫عباسی سمیه‬304.81-53Abbasi S.

Musavi M. A Look at Women’s Position in the Pahlavi Period from 1921-1953. Pazhuheshname-eZanan, vol. 1, 2014. pp. 59-82.95-25 ‫ صص‬،2989 ،22 ‫ شماره‬،‫ نشریه حوراء‬،‫ جنبش زنان در ایران‬،‫روشن سایه‬305Rowshan S. Women Movement in Iran. Nashriyye-ye Hawra, vol. 11, 2004. pp. 15-35.85Fig. 1. Iranian women secured the right to vote – 1963For instance, until 1975, there were 18 female representatives in the parliament, 2women senators, 2 women deputy ministers, and 28 women lawyers in Iran. In1978, there were hundreds of women among 5000 members of local councils. 5women served in the administrative board of the largest party in Iran, that is,Resurgence Party, and two women served in the political administration of theparty.Significant cultural and social changes in this period include: legal age formarriage for girls at 15 years old in 1968, and then in 1976 at 18 years old, thefacilitation of girls’ education, their entrance to the universities, and their dispatchto universities abroad.

In 1979 coincident with the victory of the IslamicRevolution of Iran, about 38 percent of students in Iranian universities and almosthalf of the 50,000 students who studied abroad were women306.After the Islamic Revolution in 1979 in Iran, women’s social and culturalactivities underwent certain changes. Women who followed the Western model ofcultural and social activities were dismissed in this period. On the contrary, womenwho sought to revive religious values became more active, forming establishments306Ibid.86such as the Society for Women of the Islamic Revolution and the Muslim WomenMovement.The newly emerged revolutionary government in Iran sought to provide aconstrual of a modern Islam which could protect Iran against the cultural invasionof the West, and in particular, the cultural imperialism of the US. Thus, a Shiiteinterpretation of modernity was formed as against the Western modernity.

Thismodel opposed the Western model of women activities, but its proponents, such asAyatollah Motahhari, maintained that serious revision should also be made in thetraditional condition of women and the identity and position of Muslim women inthe Iranian society should be reconstructed307.In addition to Islamist women activists, many social, political and culturalwomen groups were formed within the few first months after the victory of theIslamic Revolution. They were influenced by Western democratic thoughts or theymainly associated with Communist organizations. These societies include asfollowing:Women Awakening Association, associated with the Union of IranianCommunists, the Association of Fighting Women associated with the CommunistParty of Workers and Peasants, the Association of Women Liberty associated withthe Organization of the Communist Union, the National Women Union associatedwith therganization of Iranian People’s Fedaian (Marxist-Leninist), and finally,the Commission of Women in the Democratic Front associated with the NationalDemocratic Front.

On the other hand, there were some ethnic societies in differentregions of the country as well, such as the Association of Kurdish Women or theCenter for Turkeman Women, or the Fighting Women of Saqqez308.As time went by and after the Iraqi invasion on Iran and the increasingprevalence of social and cultural religious thoughts, Westernized and Communist307Gheytanchi E. Post - Revolutionary Iran: Islamic Feminism and Crisis of Civil Society.

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