Теоретическая фонетика английского языка (803492), страница 24
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Rhythmtime. It can be observed in the succession ofseasons, heart beating, breathing, in music, dancing and other forms ofart.Speech rhythm is traditionally defined as a regular occurrence ofstressedsyllables in a speech continuum. Speech rhythm is also described in termsof acceleration and slowing down, of relaxation and intensification, lengthand brevity, similar and dissimilar elements. The type ofrhythm depends onthe language. Languages are divided into two groups: syllable-timed, likeFrench, Spanish, Italian, Greek and others, and stress-timed, such as English, German, Dutch, Russian and other languages.In syllable-timed languages an approximately equal amount of time isgiven to each syllable, regardless of it being stressed or unstressed.
In otherwords, "all syllables, whether stressed or unstressed, occur at regular timeintervals and the time between stressed syllables will be shorter or longer inproportion to the number ofunstressed syllables" (P. Roach, 2001). In theselanguages there is practically no reduction of unstressed vowels.stress- timed languages stressed syllables tend to occur at relativelyequal intervals of time, According to the stress-timed theory time intervalsbetween stressed syllables are approximately the same irrespective of thenumber ofunstressed syllables between them, which is generally described asa tendency to isochrony. In such languages rhythm is based on a larger unitthan syllable.
This rhythmic unit is called the foot or the rhythmic group. Thestressed syllables in the rhythmic group form peaks of prominence.As it was already mentioned, the duration ofrhythmic groups is considered to be equal. However, this principle which is accepted by most phoneticians has not been experimentally verified (A Cruttenden, P. Roach, AGimson). Despite the insufficiency of acoustic data, the perception ofstress-timing in English is evident. This effect is particularly noticeable dueto the reduction and elision of vowels in unstressed syllables.
Also due to thechanges in length, pitch, loudness and vowel quality in the stressed syllablesthey are perceived as prominent in contrast to the unstressed syllables,which creates the abrupt, spiky effect of English rhythm.Table]Rhythm in Different Languages4.6.1. Speech rhythm. Definition. JYpologyThe description of English intonation and the phonetic aspect of connected speech is incomplete without some reference to speech rhythm.Rhythm is viewed as a kind offramework of speech organization.In a broad sense rhythm is understood as periodicity in time and space.The notion of rhythm implies that something occurs at regular intervals oflanguagesrhythmsyllable-timedequal amount oftime isunstressedstress-timedstressed syllables occur at equal intervals oftime and formpeaks ofprominence in rhythmic groupsto each syllable, stressed or•98Chapter IV.
Intonation4.6.2. Rhythmic group as the basic unit of rhythmThe basic unit of rhythm is the rhythmic group (the foot, the phoneticword), which can be defined as a speech segment containing a stressed syllable and unstressed syllables attached to it. The stressed syllable is the nucleus of the rhythmic group. The unstressed syllables preceding the stressedsyllable with which they are grouped are called proclitics, those followingthe stressed syllable are called enclitics.There are two alternative views among phoneticians concerning thegrouping of stressed and unstressed syllables.
According to the first point ofview the grouping is based on the semantic principle: the unstressed syllables tend to be drawn either to the stressed syllable of the same word or tothe lexical unit with which they are semantically connected:.They decided I to go I to the country Ifor the weekend.According to the other point ofview the unstressed syllables tend to jointhe preceding stressed syllable.
This theory is called enclitic. According tothe enclitic principle the same phrase will be divided into rhythmic groupsin the following way:They decided to Igo to the I country/or the I weekend.The enclitic tendency is considered to be more typical of-English,though experimental data show that the type of division into rhythmicgroups depends on the tempo and style of speech. The enclitic tendency isobserved in rapid colloquial speech, while in careful slow speech the semantic tendency prevails..It is generally acknowledged that the rhythmic group is the basic unit ofrhythm.
It functions as such in all types of texts. But the description ofrhythm is not limited to the rhythmic group. According to A. M. Antipova(1984), the rhythmic structure of speech continuum is a hierarchy of rhythmic units of different levels. Rhythmicality created by interrelation of lexical, syntactic and prosodic means, marks every text segment: rhythmicgroups, intonation groups, phrases and phonopassages.4.6.3. Rhythm in different types of discourseAn important factor which regulates speech rhythm is the style ofspeech. Thus, rhythm has a great rhetorical potential in public speaking.Admittedly, it possesses great aesthetic value in literary texts, especially inpoetry.
As far as spontaneous conversation is concerned, its rhythmic orga994.6. Rhythmnization will be very different and may even produce the effect of arhythmicality. P. Roach comments on such variations in English speech rhythmin the following way: " ... in speaking English we vary in how rhythmicallywe speak: sometimes we speak very rhythmically (this is typical of somestyles of public speaking), while at other times we speak arythmically (thatis, without rhythm) - for example, when we are hesitant or nervous. Stresstimed rhythm is thus perhaps characteristic of one style of speaking, not ofEnglish speech as a whole; one always speaks with some degree of rhythmicality, but the degree will vary between a minimum value (arythmical) anda maximum (completely stress-timed rhythm)" (P.
Roach, 2001). It is trueto say that any style of speech has some kind of rhythm, but the characterand degree of rhythmicality differ in different styles.Admittedly, maximum rhythmicality is observed in poetry. In verse theeffect of rhythmicality is created by a hierarchy of rhythmic units. The basicrhythmic units in metric verse are: the foot, the line, the stanza. The foot isformed by the stressed syllable and the unstressed syllables that precede orfollow it. The line contains one or more intonation groups with an equalnumber offeet in them.
On the prosodic level the rhythm in a line is securedby the similar number of syllables, their temporal similarity, descendingmelody contour, tone and intensity maximum at the beginning, tone andintensity minimum at the end and a final pause. These parameters make thea stable rhythmic unit. The stanza has a fixed number of lines.Obviously, the effect of poetic rhythm is not created by prosody alone.There is a number of devices which contribute to this effect: rhyme, assonance (repetition of similar vowels), alliteration (repetition of similar consonants)' repetition, syntactic parallelism and so on.Earth has not anything to show more fair.Dull would he be ofsoul who could pass byA sight so touching in its majesty:This city now doth, like a garment, wearThe beauty o/the morning; silent, bare,Ships, towers, domes, theatres and temples lieOpen unto the fields, and to the sky,All bright and glittering in the smokeless air.(w.
Wordsworth)Poets control the rhythmical patterns they use, because rhythm is apowerful means of creating poetic images. In the following extracts fromtwo classical poems this intention of the authors is perfectly clear:Chapter IV Intonation100Those evening bells! Those evening bells!How many a tale their music tells,Oflove, and home, and that sweet timeWhen last I heard their soothing chime!(Th.
Moore)The woods are lovely, dark and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before J sleep, And miles to go before J sleep (R. Frost)In prose we can also observe a hierarchy of rhythmic structures. Thebasic rhythmic unit here is rhythmic group (one stressed syllable with un!\tr4~!\!\I~d syllables attached to it). Rhythmic groups blend together into intonation groups, which form phrases and phonopassages.
The similarityof the prosodic organization of these text units creates the effect of regularity. Thus in prose an intonation group, a phrase and a phonopassagehave a number of common features in their prosodic organization: thebeginning of the rhythmic unit is characterized by the tone and intensitymaximum and the decrease oftempo; the end ofa rhythmic unitismarkedby a pause, the tone and intensity minimum, descending terminal tones.So it is prosody that forms the rhythmicality of a prosaic text read aloud.The following extracts from modern fiction illustrate the rhythmic organization of prose:4.6. Rhythm101In public speaking marked regularity of rhythm, usually based on therepetition of intonation patterns, is often used as a rhetorical device, whichis aimed at making the presentation more effective.J couldl I suppose Ihave given a quick account ofthe history II.
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