Computer Science. The English Language Perspective - Беликова (1176925), страница 44
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In its computational version, this claim implies a formof Platonism whereby life is regarded as a radically mediumindependent form of existence similar to futuristic scenarios ofdisembodied forms of cognition and AI that may be260downloaded to robots. In this debate, classical philosophicalissues about dualism, monism, materialism, and the nature ofinformation are at stake, and there is no clear-cut demarcationbetween science, metaphysics, and issues of religion and ethics.Hardware artificial life refers to small animal-like robots,usually called animats, that researchers build and use to studythe design principles of autonomous systems or agents.
Thefunctionality of an agent (a collection of modules, each with itsown domain of interaction or competence) is an emergentproperty of the intensive interaction of the system with itsdynamic environment. The modules operate quasiautonomously and are solely responsible for the sensing,modeling, computing or reasoning, and motor control that isnecessary to achieve their specific competence. Direct couplingof perception to action is facilitated by the use of reasoningmethods, which operate on representations that are close to theinformation of the sensors.This approach states that to build a system that is intelligent itis necessary to have its representations grounded in thephysical world.
Representations do not need to be explicit andstable, but must be situated and "embodied." The robots arethus situated in a world; they do not deal with abstractdescriptions, but with the environment that directly influencesthe behavior of the system. In addition, the robots have "bodies"and experience the world directly, so that their actions have animmediate feedback upon the robot's own sensations.Computer-simulated robots, on the other hand, may be"situated" in a virtual environment, but they are not embodied.Hardware artificial life has many industrial and militarytechnological applications.Wetware artificial life comes closest to real biology. Thescientific approach involves conducting experiments withpopulations of real organic macromolecules (combined in aliquid medium) in order to study their emergent self-organizing261properties.
An example is the artificial evolution of ribonucleicacid molecules (RNA) with specific catalytic properties. (Thisresearch may be useful in a medical context or may help shedlight on the origin of life on Earth.) Research into RNA andsimilar scientific programs, however, often take place in theareas of molecular biology, biochemistry and combinatorialchemistry, and other carbon-based chemistries. Such wetwareresearch does not necessarily have a commitment to the idea,often assumed by researchers in software artificial life, that lifeis a composed of medium-in-dependent forms of existence.Thus wetware artificial life is concerned with the study of selforganizing principles in "real chemistries." In theoreticalbiology, autopoiesis is a term for the specific kind of selfmaintenance produced by networks of components producingtheir own components and the boundaries of the network inprocesses that resemble organizationally closed loops.
Suchsystems have been created artificially by chemical componentsnot known in living organisms.The philosophical implications arising from the possibledevelopment of true artificial life are similar to those involvedwith “strong AI.” Human beings are used to viewingthemselves as the pinnacle of a hierarchy of intelligence andcreativity. However, artificial life with the capability of rapidevolution might quickly outstrip human capabilities, perhapsleading to a world like that portrayed by science fiction writerswhere flesh-and-blood humans become a marginalizedremnant population.Notes:Cellular Automaton is a collection of "colored" cells on a grid ofspecified shape that evolves through a number of discrete timesteps according to a set of rules based on the states ofneighboring cells.
The rules are then applied iteratively for asmany time steps as desired.homeostasis is the ability to maintain a constant internalenvironment in response to environmental changes.262DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is the hereditary material inhumans and almost all other organisms that encodes the geneticinstructions used in the development and functioning of allknown living organisms and many viruses.Game of Life, also known simply as Life, is a cellularautomaton devised by the British mathematician John HortonConway in 1970. The "game" is a zero-player game, meaningthat its evolution is determined by its initial state, requiring nofurther input. One interacts with the Game of Life by creatingan initial configuration and observing how it evolves.Hans Moravec (born November 30, 1948, Kautzen, Austria) isan adjunct faculty member at the Robotics Institute of CarnegieMellon University. He is known for his work on robotics,artificial intelligence, and writings on the impact of technology.Moravec also is a futurist with many of his publications andpredictions focusing on transhumanism.
Moravec developedtechniques in computer vision for determining the region ofinterest (ROI) in a scene.animats are artificial animals, a contraction of animal-materials.The term includes physical robots and virtual simulations.ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a ubiquitous family of largebiological molecules that perform multiple vital roles in thecoding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.
Togetherwith DNA, RNA comprises the nucleic acids, which, along withproteins, constitute the three major macromolecules essentialfor all known forms of life.autopoiesis (from Greek αὐτo- (auto-), meaning "self", andποίησις (poiesis), meaning "creation, production") refers to asystem capable of reproducing and maintaining itself.Assignments1. Translate the sentences from the texts into Russian inwriting paying attention to the underlined words andphrases:2631. The term is commonly associated with computersimulation-based artificial life, preferred heavily torobotics because of its ease of reprogramming,inexpensive hardware, and greater design space toexplore.2.
It is the quest to explain life in any of its possiblemanifestations, without restriction to the particularexamples that have evolved on earth... the ultimate goalis to extract the logical form of living systems.3. This principle is used to model the flocking behavior ofsimulated birds, called “boids”.4. This approach typically involves the setting up ofnumerous small programs with slightly varying code,and having them attempt a task such as sorting data orrecognizing patterns.5. As Langton emphasized, artificial life investigates "thebiology of the possible" to remedy one of theinadequacies of traditional biology, which is bound toinvestigate how life actually evolved on Earth, butcannot describe the borders between possible andimpossible forms of biological processes.6.
The functionality of an agent (a collection of modules,each with its own domain of interaction or competence)is an emergent property of the intensive interaction ofthe system with its dynamic environment.7. This approach states that to build a system that isintelligent it is necessary to have its representationsgrounded in the physical world.2. Answer the following questions:1.
What are the origins of A-life as a discipline?2. What questions are believed to be central to the field ofA-life?3. What does the concept of Cellular Automata involve?2644. Which of the three types of A-life seems to be mostpromising?5. What are the distinguishing features of each type?6. What kind of ethic issues might arise concerning A-life?3. Translate into English:Искусственная жизнь создана! Возможно ли такое?24 мая 2010 года на пресс-конференции известный италантливый американский биолог и бизнесмен Вентер,первый в мире расшифровавший геном человека, объявилобщественности, что под его руководством институтом егоже имени создана искусственная жизнь.Впервые в истории создана искусственная живаяклетка, которая всецело управляется рукотворнымгеномом.
Ранее ученые лишь редактировали ДНК покусочкам, получая генномодифицированные растения иживотных.Это достижение, несомненно, подогреет споры обэтичности создания искусственной жизни, а также оюридически-правовыхмоментахиобщественнойопасности таких работ. "Это поворотный момент вотношениях человека с природой: впервые создана целаяискусственная клетка с заранее заданными свойствами", пояснил молекулярный биолог Ричард Эбрайт изУниверситета Рутджерса. По мнению экспертов, вскореметод будет использоваться в коммерческих целях:некоторыекомпанииужеразрабатываютживыеорганизмы, способные синтезировать топливо, вакцины идр.
Компания Synthetic Genomics Inc., основаннаяВентером, заключила контракт на 600 млн. долларов наразработку водорослей, способных поглощать углекислыйгаз и производить топливо.Ученые фактически претворили компьютернуюпрограмму в новое живое существо. Взяв за основу одну избактерий, они внесли в компьютер полную расшифровку265ее генома, заменили некоторые фрагменты в этом "тексте"своими собственными "сочинениями" и получилимодифицированный вариант бактерии другого реальносуществующего вида.
"Мы изготавливаем геном из четырехпузырьков химикатов, вносим искусственный геном вклетку, и наш искусственный геном подчиняет клеткусебе", - разъяснил один из руководителей проекта ДэниелГибсон. Чтобы обособить эту новую бактерию и всех еепотомков от творений природы, Вентер и его коллегивставили в геном свои имена, а также три цитаты изДжеймса Джойса и других авторов. Эти "генетическиеводяные знаки" помогут ученым предъявить правособственности на клетки.Topics for essays (you might need additional information):Early automatonsFamous robotics projectsSwarm intelligence: pros and consChemically Synthesized Genome266FUTURE COMPUTINGQUANTUM COMPUTINGRead the following words and word combinations and usethem for understanding and translation of the text:property - свойство, качествоquantum - квант. квантовыйspin - вращениеsuperposition - суперпозиция, наложение, совмещениеto flesh out - конкретизировать, изложить в деталяхto spur - побуждать, стимулироватьin part - частичноto outline - намечать, изложить вкратцеto factor - факторизовать, разложить (на множители)integer - целое числоto be of great interest (to) - представлять большой интерес(для)to tackle - заниматьсяentanglement - перепутывание (квантовых состояний)to crack - раскалывать(ся), ломатьсяcivilian - гражданскийThe fundamental basis of electronic digital computing is theability to store a binary value (1 or 0) using an electromagneticproperty such as electrical charge or magnetic field.However, during the first part of the 20th century, physicistsdiscovered the laws of quantum mechanics that apply to thebehavior of subatomic particles.
An electron or photon, forexample, can be said to be in any one of several “quantumstates” depending on such characteristics as spin. In 1981,physicist Richard Feynman came up with the provocative ideathat if quantum properties could be “read” and set, a computercould use an electron, photon, or other particle to store not just267a single 1 or 0, but a number of values simultaneously.
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