(2015) Коллоквиум 2 (1157972), страница 3
Текст из файла (страница 3)
When the Second World War broke out in 1939 F. Roosevelt, who had been reelected for the second term, persuaded the USA Congress to approve the first peacetime military conscription act in the USA history and later to accept his Lend Lease Plan. The USA quickly became the main supplier of weapons and other goods to the countries fighting Hitler Germany. American factories began working at full swing again. The unemployment practically ended.
2.John Kennedy and his peaceful initiatives
In 1961 a new President John F. Kennedy (1961-3) was elected, the most progressive president since A. Lincoln and F. Roosevelt. He was young, had a good education, energy and keen, quick wit. The unfulfilled promise of Kennedy’s thousand days in office is nearly impossible to measure. He told American people that they were facing a “new frontier” with both opportunities and problems. He announced policy of fighting poverty and giving civil rights to black people. He streamlined and pushed through the space program and new laws for pollution treatment, but his main merit was his foreign policy.
When J. Kennedy came to the office, foreign problems were numerous. Soviet Union power was growing and relations between two superpowers were as cold as ever. The incipient nations of Africa were rebellious. Fidel Castro had taken control of Cuba. Unrest was evident in all Latin America. Kennedy’s first two innovations – the Peace Corps and the Alliance for Progress – captured the imagination of much of the world. The Peace Corps sent thousands of young Americans abroad to assist underdeveloped countries. The Alliance for Progress was designed as a broad assault upon the economic and social problems of Latin America.
In June 1961 a group of anti-Castro Cuban exiles supported by the CIA attempted an invasion of Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. Although the attempt was a dismal failure, the Soviet Union tried to install Soviet mediation-range ballistic missiles and bombers in Cuba. Kennedy met the Soviet Union challenge and displayed great mind in dealing with what was probably the most serious confrontation of the Cold War era. He gave the promise not to invade Cuba. The leader of the Soviet Union Nikita Khrushchev also promised to recall the weapons from Cuba. The two leaders succeeded in setting up a “Hot Line” to facilitate a quick exchange of views in case of major crises, and in signing a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty that halted surface atmospheric and outer space testing. While Kennedy was president he frequently said: “All I want them to say about me is what they said about John Adams, “He kept the peace”. In the speech he had intended to give in Dallas on November 22,1963, the day of his assassination, Kennedy declared: “We ask…that we may be worthy of our power and responsibility, that we may achieve in our time and for all time the ancient vision of ”peace on earth, goodwill toward men”. Kennedy’s sensible policy not only reduced the tension between the two but also started the policy of so-called “détente”.
1. What three main branches is the federal government of the US divided into?
The constitution provides for three main branches of government which are separate and distinct from one another; the executive branch (the president, the vice president, the cabinet), the legislative branch (the Congress) and the judicial branch (the Supreme Court).
2. What principle forms the basis of the US constitution?
The system of “check and balances”
The USA Congress has the power to make laws, but the President may veto any act of Congress. Congress, in its turn, can override a veto by a two-thirds vote in each house. Congress can also refuse to provide funds requested by the President. The President can appoint important officials of his administration, but they must be approved by the Senate. The courts have the power to determine the constitutionality of all acts of Congress and of presidential actions, and to strike down those they find unconstitutional.
The system of checks and balances makes compromise and consensus necessary. Compromise is also a vital aspect of other levels of the US government.
The system of “check and balances” protects against extremes. It means for example, that new presidents cannot radically change governmental policies just as they wish.
3. What way has the original text of the constitution been changed in?
To meet the changing needs of the nation, the constitution has been repeatedly amended. Ten amendments in the Bill of rights (1791) guaranteed the basic right of individual Americans. The other sixteen amendments included the one besides banning slavery (1865) to give women the right to vote (1920)
4. What is the difference between Republicans and Democrats?
The president-day Democratic Party was founded in 1828 representing Southern planters. The Republican Party, founded in 1854, united industrial and trade bourgeoisie from Northeast. Later after the Civil War the differences between the two parties became minimal. Sometimes, the Democrats are thought of as associated with labor, and the Republicans with business and industry. Republicans also tend to oppose the greater involvement of the federal government in some areas of public life, which they consider to be the responsibility of the states and communities. Democrats, on the other hand, tend to favor a more active role of the central government in social matters. Yet it is still more difficult for ordinary Americans to distinguish between the parties. Furthermore, the traditional European terms of “right” and “left”, or “conservative” and “liberal” do not quite fit the American system. Someone from the “conservative right”, for instance, would be against a strong central government. Or a Democrat from one part of the country could be very “liberal”, and one from another part quite “conservative”. Even if they have been elected as Democrats or Republicans, Representatives or Senators are not bound to a party program, nor are they subject to any discipline when they disagree with their party. While some voters will vote a “straight ticket’ in other words, for all of the Republican or Democratic candidates in an election, many do not. They vote for one party’s candidate for one office, and another’s for another one. As a result, the political parties have much less actual power than they do in Britain. In the U.S., the parties cannot win seats, which they are then free to fill with party members they have chosen. Rather, both Representatives and Senators are elected to serve the interests of the “people-and the areas the represent, that is, their “constituencies”. In about 70 percent of legislative decisions, Congressmen will vote with the specific wishes of their constituencies in mind, even if this goes against what their own parties might want as national policy. It is quite common, in fact, to find Democrats in Congress voting for a Republican President’s legislation, quite a few republicans voting against it, and so on.
5. What is the procedure for electing delegates to national Conventions?
The national presidential election consists of two separate campaigns: one is for the nomination of candidates at national party conventions. The other is to win the actual election. The nominating race is a competition between members of the same party. They run in a succession of state primaries and caucuses (which take place between March arid June). They hope to gain a majority of delegate votes for their national party conventions (in July of August). At the party convention having now almost theatrical character (bands, balloons, lot of noise, etc.) the party’s official candidate for the presidency is selected. The follows presidential campaign that follows after begins very early and continues until election in early November when the candidates make final television appearances and appeal for the votes. Presidential campaigns also include major expenses, apart from TV and radio and the press advertising, such as the travel costs of the candidate and his staff, their salaries and campaign literature. Such publicity items as campaign pins and bumper stickers are also widely used. All these tremendous campaign costs are financed with federal funds with equal amounts of money for each major party. At the time of the primary campaigns the competing candidates may also receive private contributions. Every campaign attracts hundreds of unpaid workers at the grass roots, or local political level.
6. What are the functions of the houses in Congress?
The USA Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The House of Representatives has 435 representatives. They are elected every two years for two – year terms. They represent the population of “congressional districts” into which each state is divided. The number of Representatives from each state is based upon its population. For instance, California, the state with the largest population, has 45 Representatives, while Delaware has only one. There is no limit to the number of terms a Senator or a Representative may serve.
Congress proposes and approves federal laws; can declare war; decides upon taxes and money budget; approves the choice of federal judges; regulates commerce among the states and with foreign countries; sets rules for the naturalization of foreign citizens. A new Congress session begins on the 3rd of January each odd – numbered year and continues for two years. The most of congressmen’s work is done in committee meetings. There are 16 “standing”, or permanent, committees in the Senate and 22 in the House of Representatives. Here the bills (offered by either house) are studied, experts are consulted, and recommendations are made. Because the Congressmen on a committee are experts in that field, they accept and improve some bills, but reject most of them. The committee responsible for a particular bill holds hearings on it. Experts appear before the committee and offer suggestions and opinions about the bill. After the hearings, the committee reports its recommendations to the House. These recommendations may include suggested changes in the bill, or the committee may propose an entirely new ones. Generally Congress goes along with the decisions of its committees.
7. How does a Bill become a law?
For a bill to become a law it must be passed by both the House and the Senate and signed by President. If President disapproves, he vetoes the bill by refusing to sign it and sends it back to Congress. To overcome President’s veto the bill must get a two-thirds majority in each chamber.
8. What is lobbying and how is its existence officially justified?
Americans, always concerned that their politicians represent their interests, often form “pressure” groups, political lobbies, public action committees (PACs), or special interest groups. Such groups influence politicians on almost any imaginable subject. One group might campaign for a nationwide, federal gun-control law, while another group opposes it.
In the previous centuries people who wanted to hand in petition or to discuss some project went to Washington, to the Capitol and there met the Congressmen from their states. The tradition is still alive, only today it is big corporations, social organizations, foreign diplomats, etc. who try to influence law – making in their favor. This is done with the help of lobbyists who arrange meetings with Congressmen, and through bribery and persuasion make them vote for measures favorable to the group they represent. Practically lobbyist (backstage influencing of legislation) has become legal, it means, that the passing of a bill can be prevented if it does not suit the interests of a definite group of Big Business.
The delicate art of influencing legislation has moved a great distance from the days when votes were bought with black cases full of money. Today’s successful lobbyists are more likely to be smooth professionals. But if lobbying techniques have grown complicated, the name of the phenomenon is still the same: special interest. Lobbyists may call themselves legislative counsels or Washington representatives, but they are still hired to sell their client’s special interests.
Although a 1946 law requires all lobbyists to register with the clerks of both chambers of Congress, and to give annual reports of the money used for this or that bill, the most effective lobbyists seldom do. They try to remain, if possible, invisible. They do not even like to call themselves lobbyists. But more and more people realize that legislation is shaped as much by both the hidden influences and by the public debates.
9. How is the US president elected?
All American citizen, (at least 18 years of age), may take part in elections. Before the elections take place the Americans who want to vote must register.
The national presidential election consists of two separate campaigns: one is for the nomination of candidates at national party conventions. The other is to win the actual election. The nominating race is a competition between members of the same party. They run in a succession of state primaries and caucuses (which take place between March arid June). They hope to gain a majority of delegate votes for their national party conventions (in July of August). At the party convention having now almost theatrical character (bands, balloons, lot of noise, etc.) the party’s official candidate for the presidency is selected. The follows presidential campaign that follows after begins very early and continues until election in early November when the candidates make final television appearances and appeal for the votes. Presidential campaigns also include major expenses, apart from TV and radio and the press advertising, such as the travel costs of the candidate and his staff, their salaries and campaign literature. Such publicity items as campaign pins and bumper stickers are also widely used. All these tremendous campaign costs are financed with federal funds with equal amounts of money for each major party. At the time of the primary campaigns the competing candidates may also receive private contributions. Every campaign attracts hundreds of unpaid workers at the grass roots, or local political level.
In November of the election year (years divisible by four, e.g. 1988, 1992, 1996, etc.), the voters across the nation go to the polls. If the majority of the popular votes in a state go to the Presidential (and Vice - Presidential) candidate of one party, then that person is supposed to get all of that state’s “electoral votes”. These electoral votes are equal to the number of senators and Representatives each state has in Congress. The candidate with the largest number of these electoral votes wins the election. The «Electoral College» formally reports each state’s electoral votes, a procedure established by the constitution.
10. What is “the Cabinet”?
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