Принципы нанометрологии, страница 2

774.5.3.6 Aperture correction ....................................... 784.5.3.7 Surface and phase change effects .................. 794.5.4 Sources of error in gauge block interferometry.............. 804.5.4.1 Fringe fraction determination uncertainty..........804.5.4.2 Multi-wavelength interferometryuncertainty ................................................... 804.5.4.3 Vacuum wavelength uncertainty ..................... 804.5.4.4 Temperature uncertainty................................804.5.4.5 Refractive index uncertainty........................... 814.5.4.6 Aperture correction uncertainty ......................

814.5.4.7 Phase change uncertainty .............................. 814.5.4.8 Cosine error .................................................. 824.6 References ......................................................................... 82CHAPTER 5 Displacement measurement............................................. 855.1 Introduction to displacement measurement ........................... 855.2 Displacement interferometry ................................................ 865.2.1 Basics of displacement interferometry ......................... 865.2.2 Homodyne interferometry ...........................................

865.2.3 Heterodyne interferometry .......................................... 875.2.4 Fringe counting and sub-division................................. 895.2.5 Double-pass interferometry.........................................895.2.6 Differential interferometry .......................................... 905.2.7 Swept-frequency absolute distance interferometry ........ 915.2.8 Sources of error in displacement interferometry............ 925.2.8.1 Thermal expansion of the metrology frame ...... 925.2.8.2 Deadpath length ........................................... 935.2.8.3 Cosine error ..................................................

935.2.8.4 Non-linearity.................................................945.2.8.5 Heydemann correction................................... 955.2.8.6 Random error sources....................................975.2.8.7 Other source of error in displacementinterferometers .............................................975.2.9 Angular interferometers.............................................. 985.3 Capacitive displacement sensors .......................................... 99viiviiiContents5.45.55.65.7Inductive displacement sensors.......................................... 100Optical encoders ...............................................................

102Optical fibre sensors..........................................................104Calibration of displacement sensors.................................... 1065.7.1 Calibration using optical interferometry ..................... 1075.7.1.1 Calibration using a Fabry-Pérotinterferometer.............................................1075.7.1.2 Calibration using a measuring laser .............. 1075.7.2 Calibration using X-ray interferometry ........................1085.8 References .......................................................................111CHAPTER 6 Surface topography measurement instrumentation ..........

1156.1 Introduction to surface topography measurement ............... 1156.2 Spatial wavelength ranges................................................ 1166.3 Historical background of classical surface texturemeasuring instrumentation .............................................. 1176.4 Surface profile measurement............................................ 1206.5 Areal surface texture measurement................................... 1216.6 Surface topography measuring instrumentation.................. 1226.6.1 Stylus instruments.................................................

1236.7 Optical instruments......................................................... 1266.7.1 Limitations of optical instruments ........................... 1276.7.2 Scanning optical techniques................................... 1326.7.2.1 Triangulation instruments ..........................

1326.7.2.2 Confocal instruments................................. 1346.7.2.2.1 Confocal chromatic probeinstrument ................................ 1386.7.2.3 Point autofocus profiling ............................1396.7.3 Areal optical techniques .........................................1426.7.3.1 Focus variation instruments ....................... 1426.7.3.2 Phase-shifting interferometry .....................

1446.7.3.3 Digital holographic microscopy ................... 1476.7.3.4 Coherence scanning interferometry ............. 1496.7.4 Scattering instruments ........................................... 1526.8 Capacitive instruments .................................................... 1556.9 Pneumatic instruments.................................................... 1566.10 Calibration of surface topography measuring instruments ......1566.10.1 Traceability of surface topographymeasurements.....................................................

1566.10.2 Calibration of profile measuring instruments .......... 1576.10.3 Calibration of areal surface texture measuringinstruments ........................................................ 1596.11 Uncertainties in surface topography measurement ............. 162Contents6.12 Comparisons of surface topography measuring instruments ... 1656.13 Software measurement standards .....................................1676.14 References .....................................................................168CHAPTER 7 Scanning probe and particle beam microscopy................

1777.1 Scanning probe microscopy................................................1787.2 Scanning tunnelling microscopy .........................................1807.3 Atomic force microscopy....................................................1817.3.1 Noise sources in atomic force microscopy ..................1827.3.1.1 Static noise determination ...........................1837.3.1.2 Dynamic noise determination .......................1837.3.1.3 Scanner xy noise determination....................1837.3.2 Some common artefacts in AFM imaging ...................1857.3.2.1 Tip size and shape ......................................1857.3.2.2 Contaminated tips.......................................1867.3.2.3 Other common artefacts ..............................1867.3.3 Determining the coordinate system of an atomicforce microscope .....................................................1867.3.4 Traceability of atomic force microscopy .....................1877.3.4.1 Calibration of AFMs.....................................1887.3.5 Force measurement with AFMs .................................1897.3.6 AFM cantilever calibration........................................1917.3.7 Inter- and intra-molecular force measurementusing AFM ..............................................................1937.3.7.1 Tip functionalisation ...................................1957.3.8 Tip sample distance measurement ............................1967.3.9 Challenges and artefacts in AFMforce measurements.................................................1977.4 Scanning probe microscopy of nanoparticles .......................1987.5 Electron microscopy ..........................................................1997.5.1 Scanning electron microscopy ..................................1997.5.1.1 Choice of calibration specimen forscanning electron microscopy ......................2007.5.2 Transmission electron microscopy .............................2017.5.3 Traceability and calibration of transmissionelectron microscopes ...............................................2027.5.3.1 Choice of calibration specimen.....................2037.5.3.2 Linear calibration ........................................2037.5.3.3 Localised calibration ...................................2037.5.3.4 Reference graticule .....................................2047.5.4 Electron microscopy of nanoparticles ........................2047.6 Other particle beam microscopy techniques.........................2047.7 References .......................................................................207ixxContentsCHAPTER 8 Surface topography characterisation ...............................

2118.1 Introduction to surface topography characterisation.............. 2118.2 Surface profile characterisation .......................................... 2128.2.1 Evaluation length .................................................. 2138.2.2 Total traverse length .............................................. 2138.2.3 Profile filtering ......................................................2138.2.3.1 Primary profile .......................................... 2158.2.3.2 Roughness profile...................................... 2158.2.3.3 Waviness profile ........................................

2168.2.4 Default values for profile characterisation ................ 2168.2.5 Profile characterisation and parameters ................... 2168.2.5.1 Profile parameter symbols .......................... 2178.2.5.2 Profile parameter ambiguities..................... 2178.2.6 Amplitude profile parameters (peak to valley)...........2188.2.6.1 Maximum profile peak height, Rp ............... 2188.2.6.2 Maximum profile valley depth, Rv ...............