Принципы нанометрологии
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Fundamental Principles of EngineeringNanometrologyThis page intentionally left blankFundamental Principles ofEngineering NanometrologyProfessor Richard K. LeachAMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORDPARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYOWilliam Andrew is an imprint of ElsevierWilliam Andrew is an imprint of ElsevierThe Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USAFirst edition 2010Copyright Ó 2010, Richard K. Leach.
Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reservedThe right of Richard K. Leach to be identified as the author of this work has beenasserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval systemor transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisherPermissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology RightsDepartment in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333;email: permissions@elsevier.com. Alternatively you can submit your request online byvisiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selectingObtaining permission to use Elsevier materialNoticeNo responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to personsor property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any useor operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the materialherein.
Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independentverification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be madeBritish Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British LibraryLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataA catalog record for this book is availabe from the Library of CongressISBN–13: 978-0-08-096454-6For information on all Elsevier publicationsvisit our web site at books.elsevier.comPrinted and bound in the United States of America10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1ContentsACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................xvFIGURES .......................................................................................................xviiTABLES .........................................................................................................
xxvCHAPTER 1 Introduction to metrology for micro- and nanotechnology .... 11.1 What is engineering nanometrology? ..................................... 21.2 The contents of this book..................................................... 31.3 References .........................................................................
4CHAPTER 2 Some basics of measurement ........................................... 52.12.22.32.42.52.62.72.8Introduction to measurement ............................................. 5Units of measurement and the SI ....................................... 6Length ............................................................................. 7Mass................................................................................ 10Force ...............................................................................
12Angle ............................................................................... 13Traceability ...................................................................... 14Accuracy, precision, resolution, error and uncertainty........... 152.8.1 Accuracy and precision ............................................ 162.8.2 Resolution and error................................................. 162.8.3 Uncertainty in measurement..................................... 172.8.3.1 The propagation of probability distributions ... 182.8.3.2 The GUM uncertainty framework...................
192.8.3.3 A Monte Carlo method ................................. 212.9 The laser .......................................................................... 232.9.1 Theory of the helium-neon laser ................................ 232.9.2 Single-mode laser wavelength stabilisation schemes ...
252.9.3 Laser frequency-stabilisation using saturatedabsorption............................................................... 252.9.3.1 Two-mode stabilisation ................................ 272.9.4 Zeeman-stabilised 633 nm lasers ............................. 282.9.5 Frequency calibration of a (stabilised) 633 nm laser .....302.9.6 Modern and future laser frequency standards ............. 312.10 References ....................................................................... 31vviContentsCHAPTER 3 Precision measurement instrumentation – some designprinciples....................................................................... 353.1 Geometrical considerations ................................................
363.2 Kinematic design .............................................................. 363.2.1 The Kelvin clamps ................................................... 373.2.2 A single degree of freedom motion device .................. 383.3 Dynamics ......................................................................... 383.4 The Abbe Principle............................................................ 403.5 Elastic compression ..........................................................
413.6 Force loops....................................................................... 433.6.1 The structural loop................................................... 433.6.2 The thermal loop ..................................................... 433.6.3 The metrology loop .................................................. 443.7 Materials.......................................................................... 443.7.1 Minimising thermal inputs........................................
453.7.2 Minimising mechanical inputs .................................. 463.8 Symmetry......................................................................... 463.9 Vibration isolation ............................................................. 473.9.1 Sources of vibration ................................................. 473.9.2 Passive vibration isolation ........................................ 493.9.3 Damping .................................................................
503.9.4 Internal resonances.................................................. 503.9.5 Active vibration isolation .......................................... 513.9.6 Acoustic noise ......................................................... 513.10 References ....................................................................... 52CHAPTER 4 Length traceability using interferometry............................ 554.1 Traceability in length........................................................... 554.2 Gauge blocks – both a practical and traceable artefact ...........
564.3 Introduction to interferometry............................................... 584.3.1 Light as a wave.......................................................... 584.3.2 Beat measurement when u1 s u2 .............................. 614.3.3 Visibility and contrast ................................................
614.3.4 White light interference and coherence length.............. 624.4 Interferometer designs......................................................... 644.4.1 The Michelson and Twyman-Green interferometer...........644.4.1.1 The Twyman-Green modification..................... 654.4.2 The Fizeau interferometer........................................... 664.4.3 The Jamin and Mach-Zehnder interferometers.............. 684.4.4 The Fabry-Pérot interferometer ................................... 704.5 Gauge block interferometry ..................................................
724.5.1 Gauge blocks and interferometry ................................. 724.5.2 Gauge block interferometry......................................... 72Contents4.5.3 Operation of a gauge block interferometer....................744.5.3.1 Fringe fraction measurement – phasestepping....................................................... 744.5.3.2 Multiple wavelength interferometryanalysis........................................................ 754.5.3.3 Vacuum wavelength....................................... 764.5.3.4 Thermal effects.............................................764.5.3.5 Refractive index measurement .......................
