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There are two widely used and nationally administered tests for high school students who wish to attend a college or university. One is the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test), which attempts to measure aptitudes in verbal and mathematical fields through multiple-choice questions marked by computer. The other is the ACT (American College Testing program), which attempts to measure skills in English, mathematics, and the social and natural sciences. Both tests are given at specific dates and locations throughout the U. S. by non-profit, non-governmental organizations. The tests are used by universities as standards for comparison, but are not in any way “official”.
Each year, the SAT is taken by some two million high school students. One million of these students are in their last year of high school. Another million are in their next-to-last year. The ACT, more commonly used in the western part of the U.S., is taken each year by another million high school students. With so many different types of high schools and programs, with so many differences in subjects and standards, these tests provide common, nationwide measuring sticks. Many universities publish the average scores achieved on these tests by the students they admit. This indicates the “quality” or level of ability expected of those who apply.
Needless to say, those children who have attended better schools, or who come from families with better educated parents; often have an advantage over those who don’t. This remains a problem in the U. S., where equality of opportunity is a central cultural goal. Not surprisingly, the members of racial minorities are the most deprived in this respect.
Higher Education.
According to American statistics over 41 percent of high school leavers apply to colleges and universities. Every year, about 12 million Americans are enrolled in the over 3,000 colleges and universities of every type: private, public, church-related, small and large, in cities, counties, and states. Close to 80 percent of the college students attend public institutions, while a little over 20 percent are enrolled in privately supported universities and colleges. United Nations figures (1980) show that in the amount spent on education per capita, the U. S. is in ninth place in the world (behind Qatar, Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Switzerland, and Canada).
Every state in the US maintains at least one institution of university rank. Programs in them are often adapted to serve local needs. State universities provide opportunities of higher education usually at a cost considerably below the cost of education in private institutions.
The institutions, which provide higher education, do not constitute any coordinate system and are not controlled by any centralized national authority. Each state has the right to found new public or private institutions of higher education within its borders. However, cooperative efforts of colleges and universities have created a number of unifying factors, which reduce the diversity of American system of higher education.
The Types of Higher Educational Institutions:
Junior Colleges (The world “college” refers either to an independent institution offering undergraduate education or to a part of a university, such as a College of Arts and Sciences or a College of Engineering). These institutions of higher education offer two-year programs beyond the secondary school level. Courses are divided into two programs, one leading to a transfer to a four-year college at the end of two years, the other intended to be terminal at the completion of the junior college, usually leading to a profession (shop work, office work, etc.)
Colleges of Liberal Arts, which generally offer four years of work beyond the secondary school level. Their programs are aimed at providing a broad educational base in philosophy, science, and culture. Course work is often organized so that students may choose some specialization or concentration in one particular field during the third and fourth years of the program. Some of these colleges are private; others are run by the state.
Specialized Institutions are usually institutions of technology, teacher training colleges, art schools, and other specialized institutions emphasize intensive concentration in a specialty as contrasted with the board range of liberal arts colleges. The course of study typically emphasizes technical, scientific, or engineering aspects of knowledge in the field. Today, the educational programs of some specialized institutions are broader and more comprehensive. In fact, some of them have changed their names, aims and programs to fit a university type of organization.
A University. An American university, having the most complex organization of all American institutions of higher education, consists of a number of schools and colleges at both levels: the undergraduate school and the graduate school. These are grouped together in one educational system. A distinctive feature of American universities is the separation of graduate from undergraduate education.
Of the nation’s 1,900 institutions of higher learning roughly one-third are state or city institutions. About 1,200 are privately controlled. Approximately 700 of these are controlled by religious groups. Less than half of these institutions are liberal art colleges and universities, which stress the languages, history, science and philosophy. The rest are professional and technological schools and junior colleges.
The American ideal of mass education for all is matched by the understanding that America needs highly trained specialists. In higher education and especially in very prestigious universities the U.S. has a selective system of admission. Acceptance into the university is based on a written application, submission of a transcript showing all courses in previously-attended educational institutions, evidence that the student satisfactorily completed all requirements at the previously-attended institution, and sometimes an oral interview or written resume at the school which the student desires to attend. Different schools of higher learning may have different standards of acceptance: some may require excellent grades on the S.A.T., while others may have less stringent requirements. Smaller schools usually like to orally interview the students before making a decision to accept him or her. This allows the school to have a close look at each student, his personality, and to make sure that the school will meet the student’s goals.
At the undergraduate level universities may have several divisions - colleges of liberal arts, a school of business or engineering or applied science, etc. A student usually enrolls in one undergraduate division, but he may take courses in more than one of these.
A full-time undergraduate degree usually takes four years. Many students study part-time and work, so it may take them much longer time to finish. Some students first take an associate’s degree at a community college, where the tuition fees are lower and study two more years at a four-year college to complete their bachelor’s degree.
Students are classified as freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors. A freshmen is a first year student, a sophomer, a second year student, a junior, a third year student, and a senior, a fourth year student.
Most undergraduate students must take liberal arts classes in English, Math, History, and a science. They choose a major (specialize) in a subject such as business, education, or art in their third year of college or after they have completed half of their course work. Students must complete a survey course in American History or American Government in order to receive any degree from the University.
To graduate from a university requires a student to complete requirements of the university, to achieve the minimum allowable grade in the required courses, and to collect the required number of so-called credits. There is wide variation in the requirements depending on which university you look at. In general, universities and colleges require students to fulfill a set of general requirements applicable to all students at the school (specialization), as well as fulfilling the specific requirements for their major field of study. For example, at Haverford College they require 32 credits for graduation, 1 credit being awarded for each course taken and passed per semester. So, 4 credits per semester and 2 semesters per year equals 8 credits per year. Four years of college education multiplied by 8 credits per year equals 32 credits, or the amount needed to graduate. However, the Linguistics Department requires 10 credits of linguistics courses in order to be eligible for the Bachelor of Arts degree in Linguistics. As a result, it is necessary to fulfill both requirements before being allowed to graduate, i.e. pass 32 credits of courses, 10 of which must be in the Linguistics Department.
In addition, most universities require a minimum grade-point average before the students is allowed to graduate. This means that all of the grades over the entire four years are averaged; if this average is less than the minimum, the student may not graduate.
There are four principal types of academic degrees, each representing a different level of academic achievement:
The associate degree is conferred upon the completion of two years of organized program of general, pre-professional, or semiprofessional work.
The bachelor’s (baccalaureate) degree is the oldest academic degree used in various forms by almost every institution offering four or more years All students who have graduated and received the bachelor’s degree are classified as advanced students or graduate students. Their transcript of grades is submitted with all applications to graduate schools. To meet high tuition fees most graduate student’s work and study.
Some graduate students receive grants, which cover the cost of their education; a person on such a fellowship is called a university fellow or a grantee.
The most common master’s degree program represents a minimum of 1 year of work beyond the baccalaureate. In certain areas this has been extended to 2 years of required graduate study (e.g. in business administration) or even 3 years (e.g. in fine arts). It may also involve one or all of the following additional requirements: a thesis, a general examination, and mastery of a foreign language. The master’s degree candidate follows a rather specific course of study, usually in a single field and arranged in cooperation with his adviser. This is not, however, considered to be a research degree, but rather preparation for the PhD. In certain cases it is bypassed by students going for PhD, but may be granted as a consolation prize to those who fail to quality for the doctorate.
Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) is one of the more rapidly growing; it is designed to prepare liberal arts graduate for secondary school teaching. Normally neither a language examination nor a thesis is required for MAT, but course in practical teaching is usually incorporated.
The earned doctorate is the most advanced degree conferred by American institutions. Doctoral programs usually consist of at least 3 years of study beyond the baccalaureate. There are 2 quite distinct types of doctoral programs: the professional degree and the research degree. The first type represents advanced training for the practice of a given profession, such as the Doctor of Medicine, the Doctor of Dental Science, and similar degrees. These degrees do not imply original research.
The research doctorate (PhD) is the highest earned degree in the American graduate school. Candidates usually follow a program of studies concentrated in one of the major fields of knowledge. They are normally required to demonstrate reading proficiency in at least two foreign languages. After a student has satisfactorily completed his course work and met his foreign language requirements, he must take a comprehensive examination to demonstrate a general knowledge of his field. It may be oral or written or both, and is evaluated by a special committee to determine whether he is prepared to undertake his dissertation (it is usually the preliminary, or qualifying, examination). The final period of predoctoral study is given over largely to the preparation of the dissertation (this may require several years to finish). A final examination is required at most universities after the dissertation and other requirements for the degree have been completed.
According to tradition, the prospective doctor of philosophy should defend the conclusions of his dissertation. Consequently, it is frequently the custom to make public announcements of the date and place of the final examination and to permit the attendance of any scholars who may wish to participate. At one time, it was not uncommon for universities to require that doctoral dissertation be published, but the increased expense in printing costs as well as the increase in the number of dissertations have made such a requirements quite rare.
| 18 years old to 21 years to | 1PstP year-freshman 2PndP year-sophomore 3d year-junior 4PthP year-senior | College or University Undergraduate Education (bachelor’s degree) | |
| 2 years | Master’s program | Graduate or Professional Education | |
| 3 to 6 years | Professional school (law, medicine) | ||
| 3 to 5 year | Doctoral program (after M.A. program) | ||
Other degrees Besides awarding earned degrees to students who have met the established requirements, some colleges and universities also award honorary degrees as a form of deserved recognition for distinguished public service or for outstanding creative work. Compared to the number of earned degrees, not many honorary degrees are awarded annually, and the recipient is usually an individual of such unquestionable reputation that the public looks upon the degree simply as a symbol of recognition for public service.
The concept of continuing (or lifelong) education is of great importance to Americans. Every year, over ten percent of all adult Americans further their education through participation in part-time instruction. Some estimate that as many as 45 million adult Americans are currently taking courses in universities, colleges, professional associations, government organizations or even churches and synagogues.
1.Answer the questions.
I..What were the aims of early institutions of higher learning in
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