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Experienced counsellors show negative correlationbetween lenght of professional experience and degree of some characteristics ofpersonal empathy and a positive correlation between lenght of employementand degree of some characteristics of professional empathy.5.Psychologists with shorter work experience show negativecorrelation between age and professional empathy's rate (lifetime "works"against empathy); psychologists with longer work experience show a positivecorrelation of same characteristics (time "works" for empathy).
We found nocorrelation between age and personal empathy's components in beginning andexperienced psychologists.6.All correlations found between personal and professional empathyare positive in novice specialists group and negative in experiencedpsychologists group.Approbation.We repeatedly discussed contents of this dissertation during postgraduateworkshops on personality psychology and meetings of personality psychologydepartment in National Research University the Higher School of Economics.Empirical results of this work were presented at the international conference"Psycosocial assistance in modern society: problems and solutions" (held inSaint-Petersburg State Institute of Psychology and Social Work, SaintPetersburg, 2015), at the conference "Psycology of Individuality" (NationalResearch University Higher School of Economics, Moscow 2016), at theinternational conference «Come Together: The power of group dynamics”(Sydney, 2015), at the international conference “Working at the Relational Edgeof Evidence” (London, 2018).
We used dissertation materials in lectures"Theory and practice of transactional analysis" (East European institute ofPsychoanalysis, 2016-2018)Work structure and volume.7Dissertation is composed of 3 chapters with introduction and conclusion,275 sources of bibliography which includes 145 sources in English and 130 inRussian, and 6 appendixes. There are 4 illustrations and 14 tables. Dissertationconsists of 165 pages.General content.Introduction contains rationale, description of problem, information onscientific novelty and theoretical relevance of study. It also contains list of aims,objectives, presents object, subject and research design, issues for defence,theoretical and methodological basics of study.First chapter "Term “empathy” in psychology and psychotherapy"provides an overview of scientific concepts of empathy.First section of the first chapter describes the development of theempathy concept, from its birth under german romantic phylosophy with a nameof "feeling into".
Theodor Lipps is a creator of the most complete theory of"feeling into". He thought that inborn capacity of motor imitation that mediatesour perception of others is basic to empathy. Term empathy itself came topsychology by virtue of Edward B. Titchener, who translated german term«Einfuhlung» in English as empathy (in analogue with sympathy). Titchenerdetermines empathy as a mechanism of imagination based on kinesteticperception and which is a basis of every cognitive process.
Thereafter theempathy term smoothly shifts to psycotherapeutic converstions and is found inFreud's works as a way of perception of other's mind in everyday life, which isalso a basis to understanding humor. Term “empathy” is also found in works ofFerenczi who describes it as an essential factor in building a relationshipbetween psychotherapist and patient.The second section of the first chapter describes a period of an activedevelopment of understanding empathy in psycotherapy. According to CarlRogers, empathy process suggests an insight in others personal world ofperception.
Empathy goes beyond psychotherapeutic office and is a conditionfor development in all caring professions, thus empathy becomes an importanthuman need. According to Heinz Kohut, empathy is an instrument of8psychotherapist work; it is both a need of personal growth and an empiricalmethod of psychology and psychoanalysis. After Kohut, emphathy is a processof seeing and feeling of self in a context of other's life, a moderate way ofperception of what other feels.The third section of the first chapter describes the diversity ofapproaches to determine empathy in psychology.
The whole variety of ways ofdefining emphaty which exist in philosophic, psychological resourses can bedivided in three general types: "epistemological", "ethical" and "integrative".Integrative approach combines epistemological and affective nuances with abehavioral compoment of empathy.In the fourth section of the first chapter we describe basic approachesto empathy research in psychological theory and practice. We distinguish twoleading approaches to empathy in psychology: empathy considered aspersonality characteristic and empathy considered as a characteristic ofinterpersonal interactions.
Generally, researchers use tests for investigation ofempathy as personality characteristic. There are three strategies of studyingempathic interactions between client and therapist: psychotherapists evaluatethemselves, clients evaluate their therapist and external experts evaluateempathy of counselling psychotherapist using session records. We describeresults of significant investigations of empathy as professional trait (which isimportant for caring professions), as altruistic behavior factor, as component ofemotional intelligence and as a result of mirror neuron’s work.In the fifth section of the first chapter, we discuss the importance ofempathy for professional activity of a counselling psychologist.
The majority ofresearchers and practicing psychotherapist come to a consensus on theimportance and effectiveness of empathy in therapeutic process. Some ofpsychotherapy schools define empathy as a professional skill and focusextensively on mastering empathy throughout all learning stages.In the sixth section of the first chapter "Stages of professionaldevelopment of a counselling psychologist ", we provide evidence of9importance of personal and professional empathy research on various stages ofprofessional development.We describe several stages of professional development of a counsellingpsychologist and conflicts, which a specialist comes up against in professionaldevelopment.The seventh section of the first chapter we describe the results ofprevious study of empathy, self-actualization and professional self-evaluation of103 counselling psychologists with various working experience.
This studyinfluenced the statement of hypotheses, aims and objectives of presentdissertation. In this chapter, we also extend research problem of empathy aspersonal trait and a professional quality of a counselling psychologist, which westated in introduction.Test of empathy capabilities (V. Boyko questionnaire) shows thatempathy is higher within beginning psychotherapist then within moreexperienced ones (with 3-6 and 7-15 years of working practice respectively).This fact disproves one of the hypotheses of present study and a popular beliefthat empathy is higher in experienced counselling psychologist than inbeginning ones.
Basing on this investigation, we assumed that term empathy hasa slightly other meaning to psychologists than to other professionals. Thus,empathy is less important to counselling psychologists as personality trait thanas professional skill. During psychotherapy sessions, empathy manifests as anability of reflecting client feelings and of building a specific therapeuticrelationship with client.We suppose that counseling psychologists (who use empathy asprofessional skill) can reduce empathy level in everyday life with increase ofworking experience, which helps them to save personal energy and avoidemotional burnout. When we distinguish personal and professional empathy inthe performance of a counselling psychologist, we have regard to the nature ofcounseling work, which unite manifestation of agency and personality.Talking of agency of counseling psychologist in their work, we highlightthat a counseling psychologist sets himself and achieves a purpose of helping10the client in solving difficult situations, mastering self-regulation, settingdevelopment goals etc.
Here we are facing a counselor as a professional whohas relevant aptitudes and competences displayed in communication with client.When we talk of personality, we mean that counselor comes to be in thelife of the client ("an ideal representation and continuity", "significance for asignificant other" in terms of V. Petrovsky).
From this perspective, we rely onthe fundamental distinction of “actor” and “personality” (B. Ananiev, V.Shadrikov). From this point of view, psychological counseling is activity ascommunication just as communication activity.The second chapter "Study management and methods of personal andprofessional empathy investigation in counseling psychologists with differentlength of professional experience" consists of four sections and describes logicsof composition, phases and investigative techniques of the dissertation study.From first to fourth sections of the second chapter, we describeexperimental study steps, particularities of the investigation procedure withsubjects, who lead psychotherapeutic sessions in inter-visor groups of threepeople and the criteria of choosing the experts who made sessions assessment.We describe in detail the sampling process and explain rationale for division of63 subjects in two groups: experienced and beginning counseling psychologists.We characterize methods of studying empathy as personal trait and professionalquality and describe statistical methods of data processing.In third chapter, we present experimental results of study of empathy incounseling psychologists with various working experience.
This chapterconsists of three sections in which we describe experimental results of study.First section of the third chapter describes results of a comparativestudy of the group 1 and group 2, measured by Interpersonal reactivity index(IRI), which targets personal empathy.11Table 1. Results of comparative study of IRI test measures in group 1 and 2.MeanIRI itemsStandartdeviationMann-Whitney UtestPvalueGroup1GroupGroup 1 Group 22Fantasy22,2819,523,054,14305,00**,008PerspectiveTaking19,2819,353,963,66490,00,934Empathic Concern 17,5219,353,762,86376,50,099Personal Distress11,555,303,70417,28,27613,28Statistical processing of data reveals significant difference on the scale“Fantasy” between group 1 and 2.
Beginning counselors (with workingexperience from one to three years) have greater ratios on Fantasy scale incomparison with experienced psychologists. Beginning psychotherapists tend toimaginary transfer themselves to emotions and acts of fantasy characters frombooks, movies and plays.In the second section of the third chapter, we describe reliabilitytesting results of Barret-Lennard test using Cronbrach’s alpha estimate.
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