Теоретическая фонетика английского языка (803492), страница 16
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The influence ofthis factor can be illustrated by the pairs of words, in which adjective andnoun are contrasted to verbs: 'insult - in'suit, 'record re'cord, 'peifect - per'fect, 'present - pre'sent.So to predict the assignment ofword stress it is necessary to identifY andconsider the factors that independently or in combination determine theplacement of stress. Philip Carr, for example, views these factors in the fol643.6. Functions of Word StressChapter III. Word Stress65ute - distribute, 'aristocrat a'ristocrat. The stress on the initial syllable iscaused by the diachronical recessive tendency or the stress on the secondsyllable under the influence of rhythmical tendency.The third tendency is called retentive. A derivative retains the stress ofthe original (parent) word, e. g.
'similar - as'similate, recom'mend - ,recommen'dation. Sometimes in the derivative the primary stress of the originalword turns into secondary stress, e. g. 'demonstrate - ,demonstration.lowing order: the syntactic category of the word (nouns behave differentlyfrom verbs and adjectives), syllable weight, morhological structure (the addition of suffixes can have consequences for the way that a word is stressed)(Ph.
Carr, 1999).The study of the factors listed above can give some guidance as regardsthe placement of word stress in Modern English. However, it is generallyacknowledged that the accentual pattern of English words is liable to instadue to the inner typological proccesses that are a result of the historidevelopment of the language. These processes are described as tendencies in the placement of word stress.Figure 9Tendencies in the Placement of Word Stress3.5. Tendencies in the Placement of Word Stressrecessive tendencyretentive tendencyThey generally distinguish three tendencies which account for the ations of stress patterns in English: recessive, rhythmical and retentive tendencies.Recessive tendency is the tendency to stress the beginning of the wordtypical of Germanic languages.In Germaic languages, where short one or two-syllable words predominated, the stress originally fell on the initial syllable or the second syllable, theroot syllable in words with prefixes.
Unrestricted recessive tendency is observed in the native English words with no prefix (,mother, 'daughter, 'brother,'swallow, 'carry) and in assimilated French borrowings Creason, 'colour). Restricted recessive tendency marks English words with prefixes, some ofwhichno longer exist as such (fore'see, with'draw, be'gin, a'part,/otget).A great number of words of Anglo-Saxon origin are monosyllabic anddisyllabic words with the stress on the first or the second syllable. They alternated in the chain of speech with unstressed form words, which createdthe peculiar rhythm of English speech. The rhythmical tendency reflects therhythm of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables.
This tendencycaused the appearance of the secondary stress in the multi syllable Frenchborrowings, e. g. revo'lution, ,organi~~ation, as,simi'lation, etc. It also explainsthe placement of primary stress on the third syllable from the end in threefour-syllable words, e. g. 'cinema, 'situate, atticulate, significant. TheLvlTelation of recessive and rhythmical tendencies can be traced in borrowed three-syllable words, e. g. 'family, 'library, 'faculty, 'possible. In mostcases, however, these two tendencies contradict each other, which leads tothe existence of such accentual variants as 'hospitable - hos'pitable, 'distrib&,3.6. Fnnctions of Word StressIWord stress performs the following functions:Word stress organizes the syllables into a word. It creates a particularpattern of relationships among syllables, making some syllables more prominent than others and thus shapes the word as a whole.
Thus word stressperforms the constitutive function.Word stress makes it possible for the listener to identify a succesion ofsyllables with a definite recurrent stress pattern as a word. In other words, ithelps us to recognise the word in the chain ofspeech. This function is calledidentificatory ( recognitive).Word stress is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or theirforms, thus performing its distinctive function.
Primary stress placement candistinguish:- the grammatical category (morphological class) of the word in theoppositions 'import - im'port, 'insult - in'sult, 'conduct - con'duct, in whichthe stress falls on the first syllable in nouns and on the last syllable in verbs;the meaning of the word, e. g.
'billow be'low;- compound nouns from free word combinations, e. g. 'blackboard'black 'board, 'greenhouse - 'green 'house. In compound nouns primary stressis placed on the first element, while in word combinations adjective + nounthere is primary stress on both elements.66Chapter Ill. Word StressIn Russian word stress also performs the distinctive function, differentiating lexical meaning of words (l.Iye)ftaR - Ltye)JltiFt, 3CtM01C - 3aMo,,) andgrammatical forms of words (3UMbl 3UMbl, 6eabl- 6eabl).Discussing the functional aspect of word stress we should mention thatthe accentual structure of compound words is very closely connected withtheir semantic value. Some authors describe this phenomenon as a semantictendency in the placement of word stress: the stress is generally assigned tothe elements which have a greater semantic, distinctive weight.By way of illustration we shall look at the placement of stress in com- "pound words.
In the examples given above ('blackboard - 'black 'board) andin such pairs as (gentleman - gentle 'man) the placement ofstress on the firstmorpheme in compound nouns signifies that the words "have a singlemeaning, not made up from the meanings of sub-parts" (Ph. Carr, 1999),while two equal stresses on both parts of word combinations show that eachelement has its own meaning.Basically, the stressed element has a greater semantic value than the unstressed one.
We can also say that the stress falls on the element which conveysnew important information. For example, in such compound nouns as 'dining-room, 'bathroom, 'bell boy, 'ballet dancer the first element is more significant, more informative, which is expressed by the placement of stress on thefirst morpheme. Here are some more examles: 'powder-like, 'oval-shaped.Summary\\brd stress is a greater degree ofprominence ofa syllable or syllables ascompared to the other syllables of a word.The stressed syllables are pronunced with more muscular energy than theunstressed ones. On the acoustic level stressed syllables are characterized byincreased intensity, duration and fundamental frequency, which correspondto increased loudness, length and pitch on the perception level.There are two types of word stress: dynamic and musical (tonic).English word stress is a complex phenomenon formed by interdependent components: loudness, pitch, length and vowel quality.The syllables in a word have different degrees ofprominence.
In Englishthey generally distinguish three linguistically relevant degrees of stress: primary, secondary and weak. Some scholars also include tertiary stress, butthe first classification is more acceptable for teaching English as a foreignlanguage.Summary67According to its placement stress can be fixed or free. Both in Englishand in Russian word stress is not only free, but it is also shifting, it canchange its position in different forms ofthe word.To define the position ofword stress in an individual word it is helful toconsider the following factors: the phonological structure of a syllable (syllable weight), the number of syllables in the word, the morphological factor(if the word simple, complex or compound) and the grammatical categorythe word belongs to.They generally distinguish three tendencies that account for the variations of stress patterns in English: recessive, rhythmical and retentive tendencies.Word stress can perform the following functions: consitutive (it organizes the syllables into a word), identificatory, or recognitive (it helps thelistener to recognise the word in the chain of speech) and distinctive (it candistinguish grammatical forms and meaning of words).The correct selection of a syllable or syllables to stress in an Englishword causes a lot of difficulties to Russian learners.
So in teaching pronunciation special attention should be given to the aspects which present difficulties due to the instability of English stress structure, on the one hand,and the differences in English and Russian word stress:stress in multi-syllable words, containing secondary stress;- stress in complex words containing suffixes;stress in compound words;- word-class pairs with shifting stress ('insult - in'sult).Chapter IVINTONATION4.1. Definition of Intonation4.2.
Components of Intonation4.3. Intonation Pattern as the Basic Unit ofIntonation4.4. Notation4.5. Functions of Intonation4.5.1. Communicative function as the basicfunction of intonation4.5.2. Distinctive function4.5.3. Organising function4.5.4. Intonation in discourse4.5.5. Pragmatic function4.5.6.
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