Lectures of The Linguistic Culture (798449), страница 22
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Наибольший объем исследований среди бесприбыльных организаций выполняют независимые исследовательские институты. Они не входят в состав фирм и университетов и различны по своим размерам и структуре. Это, как правило, специализированные исследовательские организации. Старейшими бесприбыльными организациями являются Меллоновский, Беттелевский и Рокфеллеровский фонды. Особое место в этой группе бесприбыльных федеральных исследовательских центров занимает «РЭНД корпорейшен». Это специализированный научный центр, который дает независимую экспертную оценку качества и способов исполнения различных научно-исследовательских проектов. Эта корпорация проводит предварительные исследования, предшествующие выполнению проекта, но не принимает практического участия в их осуществлении, хотя консультирует исполнителей в ходе выполнения проекта. Ее часто называют «мозговым центром», или «мыслительным резервуаром».
В). Университеты и научные исследования.
В настоящее время университеты США, оставаясь центрами высшего образования, превратились и в центры фундаментальных исследований. Их значение в проведении научных исследований можно сравнить в известной мере с ролью Академии наук у нас в России. Это обусловлено концентрацией в университетах значительного числа высококвалифицированных научных работников, а также значительной государственной и частной финансовой поддержкой фундаментальных исследований.
Организация исследований в университетах проводится в двух формах: на основе субсидий и по контрактам. Для получения субсидий ученый должен составить план-заявку и в ней кратко изложить суть предложения. В случае принятия ведомством положительного решения ученый получает средства, за которые он несет личную ответственность. Университеты проводят исследования не только в своих лабораториях, но и в лабораториях, принадлежащих различным правительственным ведомствам. Наиболее крупные федеральные исследовательские центры управляются по контрактам университетской администрацией. Примером может служить Лаборатория им. Линкольна при Массачусетском технологическом институте.
Характерным для современной Америки является быстрый рост научно-промышленных комплексов, появившихся благодаря сотрудничеству университетской науки с промышленностью. Такие комплексы объединяют университеты, научно-исследовательские учреждения и промышленные фирмы, связанные общими интересами в области исследований и производства. Среди таких комплексов важнейшими являются: Кембридж-Бостон, Сан-Франциско, Лос-Анджелес, Принстон и Хьюстон. Превращение университетов в центры фундаментальных исследований значительно повысило их статус в обществе.
Г). Русские американцы. Без России не было бы телевизоров и вертолетов.
На всем протяжении американской истории, причем в ее самые ответственные моменты, русские всегда были готовы прийти и помочь. Первый «русский американец», друг президента Мэдисона Федор Каржавин (1745-1812) внес свою лепту в борьбу за независимость. Жизнь и дела его - сюжеты для авантюрного романов. Полковник Российской армии Иван Тупчанинов после Крымской войны вышел в отставку и эмигрировал в Америку. Там во время гражданской войны добровольцем записался в армию северян, командовал бригадой и был произведен Линкольном в генералы. Его жена стала первой в Америке женщиной - полевым хирургом.
Александр Северский (1894-1974) был конструктором военных самолетов. Среди его идей были автопилот и система дозоправки в воздухе. Степан Тимошенко(1878-1972)-ученый-металлург, крупнейший в мире специалист по сопротивлению материалов…
Тысячи фамилий в русском мире Америки являются гордостью наших стран:.нобелевский лауреат, экономист Леонтьев, изобретатель телевидения Зворикин, авиаконструктор Игорь Сикорский, выдающийся американский офтальмолог Елена Федукович, Нина Федорова – генетик, академик Национальной академии наук, физик Георгий Гамов. А еще – писатели, артисты балета, музыканты, певцы, художники!
Part II. Silicon Valley – What is This?
Read and translate the following words and word combination:
To spawn - создавать, зарождаться, размножаться
An entrepreneur – предприниматель, владелец предприятия
To be charged with a project – поручать проект
Venture capital –капитал, вложенный в предприятие
Synergy - явление в деловой практике, когда общий результат превосходит
сумму отдельных эффектов
To endow - капитал, вкладываемый в предприятие
To impede - обеспечивать капиталом
Insulator - диэлектрик, непроводник
Impurities - примесь
Boron - (хим.) бор
Flagship - флагман
To embark on - начинать дело, браться за что-то
To earn a doctorate – получить докторскую степень
Te be bootstapped to – быть загруженным… … -
Embedded - включенный
Hubs - втулки
Outers up to the – до отказа, по уши
Geographically, the Silicon Valley is the northern part of the Santa Clara County, an area stretching from the south end of the San Francisco Area to San Jose- the capital of Santa Clara County, limited by the Santa Cruz Mountains in the west and the northern part of the Diablo Range in the east. The name Silicon Valley was coined in 1971 by Don C. Hoefler, editor of the Microelectronics News, when he used this term in his magazine as the title for a series of articles about semiconductor industry in Santa Clara County. Silicon Valley saw the development of the integrated circuit, the microprocessor, the personal computer and the video game and has spawned a lot of high-tech products as pocket calculators, cordless telephones, lasers or digital watches. Looking at our high-tech society in which the PC has become indispensable-both in businesses and at home, the crucial role of Silicon Valley as the birthplace of the microelectronics and then the PC revolution has become even more evident.
Silicon Valley is also seen as a place where many entrepreneurs backed by venture capital have made the American Dream come true as “Overnight Millionaires”. This makes Silicon Valley a philosophy saying that everything which seems impossible is feasible and that improvements in the US society can take place. The mayor of San Jose Thomas Enery called it the “economic and cultural frontier where successful entrepreneurship and venture capitalism, innovative work rules and open management styles provide the background for the most profound inquiry ever into the nature of intelligence” which might, together with “bioengineering and artificially intelligent software”, affect our evolution. The revolutionary inventions and developments, which have been made in this «Valley», affect the daily life and it is hard to imagine high-tech society without them.
The story of the “Silicon Valley” starts with Stanford University, which has been of fundamental importance in the rise of the electronics industry in Santa Clara County.
In 1887, Leland Stanford, a wealthy railroad magnate who owned a large part of the Pacific Railroad, decided to built a university and dedicate it to the memory of his son who died very young. The university was opened in 1891 and became later one of the world’s greatest academic institutions.
Frederick Term who is known today as a godfather of the Silicon Valley changed the position of this university fundamentally. After graduation from Stanford University he decided to go east to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which was then the leading university in technology. After receiving his doctorate in 1924 he turned to Palo Alto and became the head of the engineering department in 1937.Terman established strong cooperation between Stanford and the surrounding electronics industry to stop the brain drain among the university graduates, as they could not find good jobs in California at that time. Due to his prepaid leasing program Terman received more than $18 million. Thanks to him many companies endowed the university with gifts, which Terman used to hire qualified professors from all over the USA. Thus, he created a mechanism, which increased the settlement of the electronics industry.
During World War II, after the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor in 1942, a great deal of the US military forces and of the military production was moved to California. Within a few years, California became a booming industrial state and the military center of the USA. After World War II, the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) was founded to provide the industry with more skilled specialists and increase the number of companies in Santa Clara County. More firms - among them Hewlett-Packard as one of the first residents - settled their departments in this park.
During the Korean War the US government placed Stanford with a great deal of the projects, which made more and more electronics companies (among them IBM and Lockheed) opened R&D departments in Santa Clara County. Military funding for high-tech products was responsible for the rapid growth of Silicon Valley. Such firms as FMC, GTE, Varian Associates, Westinghouse, and finally Lockheed opened their R&D departments in the Stanford Research Park and started Lockheed Missiles and Space Company (LMSC) in Sunnyvale. They were to become the core of the early explosive growth of Silicon Valley Lockheed’s (with 24,000 Employees now) move to Northern California was crucial for the developments in Santa Clara County.
The invention of the microprocessor in the early 1970s represented the next step towards the modern way of computing, providing the basis for the subsequent personal computer revolution .
The first microprocessor was designed at Intel Corporation (Integrated Electronics) representing the key to modern personal computers. With its logic and memory chips, the company started providing the basic components for microcomputers. Intel, the most successful semiconductor company is regarded as Silicon Valley’s flagship, owing its worldwide leading role to a perpetually high spending on research and development (R&D).
The foundation of the corporation started in 1968 by Bob Noyce together with Gordon Moore and Andy Grove. Their aim was to embark on a new venture and “to regain the satisfaction of research and development”. After Bob Noyce had developed a new photochemical process, the three engineers developed the ideas of integrating many transistors on a chip of silicon. Initially they focused on building the first semiconductor chips used for computer memory, which could replace the dominant memory storage technology at the time, called “magnetic core”. The young company started with 12 employees and with the first two products gained the technological lead in the field of memory chips.
Within a year, Intel developed its first product - the 3101 Schottky bipolar 64-bit static random access memory (SRAM), which was soon followed by the 1101. This chip (1101) was a 256-bit SRAM developed on Intel’s new “silicon gate metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) process”.
Intel’s first really successful product was the 1103 dynamic random access memory (DRAM), which was manufactured in the MOS process. Introduced in 1970, this chip was “first merchant market LSI (large-scale integrated) DRAM”, and received broad acceptance because it was superior to magnetic core memories. So, by the end of 1971, the 1103 had become the world’s largest-selling semiconductor device and provided the capital for Intel’s early growth.
Until today, semiconductor has adhered to Moore’s Law, which has been framed by the cofounder of Fairchild and Intel when the first commercial DRAMs appeared in the early 1970s. This law predicts that the price per bit drops by 30% every year. It implies that one will receive 30 % more power (speed/capacity) at the same price. Moore’s Law, which could be applied to both memory chips and microprocessors, showed the unprecedented rapid progress in microelectronics.
Intel’s revenues surpassed operating expenses for the first time in 1971. This year the company introduced a new memory chip EPROM (“erasable, programmable read only memory”). Invented by Intel’s Dov Frohman, the new memory could store data permanently but besides could be erased simply by a beam of ultraviolet light and be used again. The invention of the microprocessor marked a turning point in Intel’s history. It showed the real significance of the EPROM, which could be used by original equipment manufacturer customers to store microprocessor programs in a “flexible and low-cost way”. The unexpected synergy between the EPROM and the microprocessor resulted in a growing market for both chips and contributed a great deal to Intel’s early success.
The story of further technological breakthrough began in 1969, when a Japanese calculator manufacturer Busicomp asked Intel to design a set of chips for a family of programmable calculators. Marcian Ted Hoff, a young and very bright ex-Stanford research associate who had joined Intel as employee number 12, was charged with this project. However, Ted Hoff did not like the Japanese design calling for 12 customs chips - each of them was assigned a distinct task. Hoff thought that designing so many different chips would make the calculators very expensive. His idea was to develop a four-chip set with a general-purpose logic device as its center, which could be programmed by instructions stored on a semiconductor memory chip. With the help of new employee Stan Mazor, Hoff perfected the design of what would be the 4004 arithmetic chip. After Busicomp had accepted Hoff’s chip set, Frederico Faggin, one of the best chip design experts, began transforming the design into silicon. The 4004 microprocessor, a 4-bit chip (processes 4 bits - a string of four ones or zeroes-of information at a time), contained 2300 MOS transistors, and was as powerful as the legendary first electronic computer ENIAC.
Soon after the first 4004s had been delivered, Intel realized the market potential of the chip, and successfully renegotiated with the Japanese to regain the exclusive rights, which had been sold to Busicomp. In November 1971, Intel introduced the 4004 to the public in Electronic News ads. They announced not just a new product, but also “a new era of integrated electronics”, a micro programmable computer on a chip. The microprocessor is - as Gordon Moore called it - “one of the most revolutionary products in the history of mankind, and ranks as one of 12 milestones of American technology in a survey of the US” (“News and World Report”, 1982). The introduction of a microprocessor made possible the creation of a microcomputer.
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