Chemistry - an illustrated guide to science (794128)
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SCIENCE VISUAL RESOURCESCHEMISTRYAn Illustrated Guide to ScienceThe Diagram GroupChemistry: An Illustrated Guide to ScienceCopyright © 2006 The Diagram GroupAuthor:Derek McMonagle BSc PhD CSci CChem FRSCEditors:Eleanora von Dehsen, Jamie Stokes, Judith BazlerDesign:Anthony Atherton, Richard Hummerstone,Lee Lawrence, Phil RichardsonIllustration:Peter WilkinsonPicture research:Neil McKennaIndexer:Martin HargreavesAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any formor by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, orby any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing fromthe publisher. For information contact:Chelsea HouseAn imprint of Infobase Publishing132 West 31st StreetNew York NY 10001For Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data, please contact the publisher.ISBN 0-8160-6163-7Chelsea House books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulkquantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions.
Please callour Special Sales Department in New York at 212/967-8800 or 800/322-8755.You can find Chelsea House on the World Wide Web athttp://www.chelseahouse.comPrinted in ChinaCP Diagram 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1This book is printed on acid-free paper.IntroductionChemistry is one of eight volumes of the Science Visual Resourcesset.
It contains eight sections, a comprehensive glossary, a Web siteguide, and an index.Chemistry is a learning tool for students and teachers. Full-colordiagrams, graphs, charts, and maps on every page illustrate theessential elements of the subject, while parallel text provides keydefinitions and step-by-step explanations.Atomic Structure provides an overview of the very basic structureof physical matter. It looks at the origins of the elements andexplains the nature of atoms and molecules.Elements and Compounds examines the characteristics of theelements and their compounds in detail. Tables give the boilingpoints, ionization energies, melting points, atomic volumes, atomicnumbers, and atomic masses key elements. Plates also describecrystal structures and covalent bonding.Changes in Matter is an overview of basic chemical processes andmethods. It looks at mixtures and solutions, solubility,chromatography, and the pH scale.Patterns—Non-Metals and Patterns—Metals focus on theproperties of these two distinct groups of elements.
These sectionsalso include descriptions of the industrial processes used whenisolating important elements of both types.Chemical Reactions looks at the essential factors that influencereactions. It includes information on proton transfer, electrolysis,redox reactions, catalysts, and the effects of concentration andtemperature.Chemistry of Carbon details the chemical reactions involvingcarbon that are vital to modern industry—from the distillation ofcrude oil to the synthesis of polymers and the manufacture ofsoaps and detergents. This section also includes an overview of thechemistry of life.Radioactivity is concerned with ionizing radiation, nuclear fusion,nuclear fission, and radioactive decay, as well as the properties ofradiation. Tables describe all known isotopes, both radioactive andnon-radioactive.Contents1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE891011121314151617Formation of starsFate of starsThe solar systemPlanet compositionPlanetary density, size, andatmosphereAtomic structureGeiger and Marsden’sapparatusInvestigating the electron 1Investigating the electron 2Cathode ray oscilloscope18 Measuring the charge on theelectron19 Size and motion ofmolecules20 Determination of Avogadro’sconstant21 The mole22 Atomic emission spectrum:hydrogen23 Energy levels: hydrogenatom24 Luminescence2 ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS25 Organizing the elements26 The periodic table27 First ionization energies ofthe elements28 Variation of first ionizationenergy29 Melting points of theelements °C30 Variation of meltingpoints31 Boiling points of theelements °C32 Variation of boiling points33 Atomic volumes of theelements34 Variation of atomicvolumes35 Atomic mass36 Periodic table with massesand numbers37 Calculating the molecularmass of compounds38 Structure of some ioniccrystals39 Crystal structure of metals:lattice structure40 Crystal structure of metals:efficient packing41 Chemical combination: ionicbonding42 Chemical combination: ionicradicals43 Chemical combination:covalent bonding44 Chemical combination:coordinate bonding3 CHANGES IN MATTER45 Mixtures and solutions46 Colloids47 Simple and fractionaldistillation48 Separating solutions49 Paper chromatography50 Gas-liquid chromatographyand mass spectrometry51 The pH scale52 Indicators53 Titration of strong acids54 Titration of weak acids55 pH and soil56 The water cycle57 Treatment of water andsewage58 The water molecule59 Water as a solvent of ionicsalts60616263Ionic solutionsSolubilitySolubility curvesSolubility of copper(II)sulfate4 PATTERNS—NON-METALS64 Hydrogen: preparation65 Hydrogen: comparativedensity66 Hydrogen: reaction withother gases67 Hydrogen: anomalies inammonia and water68 Basic reactions of hydrogen69 The gases in air70 Nitrogen71 Other methods ofpreparing nitrogen72 The nitrogen cycle73 Preparation and propertiesof ammonia74 Industrial preparation ofammonia (the Haberprocess): theory75 Industrial preparation ofammonia (the Haberprocess): schematic76 Industrial preparation ofnitric acid77 Nitrogen: reactions inammonia and nitric acid78 Basic reactions of nitrogen79 Nitrate fertilizers80 Oxygen and sulfur81 Extraction of sulfur—theFrasch process82 Oxygen and sulfur:allotropes83 Oxygen and sulfur:compound formation84 The oxides of sulfur85 Industrial preparation ofsulfuric acid (the contactprocess): theory86 Industrial preparation ofsulfuric acid (the contactprocess): schematic87 Affinity of concentratedsulfuric acid for water88 Oxygen and sulfur:oxidation and reduction89 Basic reactions of oxygen90 Basic reactions of sulfur91 The halogens: group 792 Laboratory preparation ofthe halogens93 Compounds of chlorine94 Hydrogen chloride insolution95 Acid/base chemistry of thehalogens96 Redox reactions of thehalogens97 Reactivity of the halogens5 PATTERNS—METALS98 World distribution of metals99 Main ores of metals100 The group 1 metals101 The group 1 metals:sodium102 The group 2 metals103 The group 2 metals: generalreactions104 The transition metals:electron structure105 The transition metals:ionization energies andphysical properties106 Aluminum107 Iron: smelting108 The manufacture of steel109 Rusting110 Copper smelting andconverting111 Reactions of copper112 Reaction summary:aluminum, iron, and copper113 The extraction of metalsfrom their ores114 Reactivity summary:metals115 Tests on metals: flame test116 Tests on metals: metalhydroxides117 Tests on metals: metal ions118 Uses of metals6 CHEMICAL REACTIONS119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133Reactivity of metals 1Reactivity of metals 2ElectrolysisElectrolysis: electrodeactivity and concentrationAcids: reactionsPreparation of acidsBases: reactionsBases: forming pure saltsProton transfer:neutralization of alkalisProton transfer:neutralization of basesProton transfer: metalliccarbonatesProton transfer:neutralization of acidsCollision theoryRates of reaction: surfacearea and mixingRates of reaction:temperature andconcentration134 Rates of reaction:concentration over time135 Rate of reaction vs.concentration136 Variation of reaction rate137 Rates of reaction: effect oftemperature 1138 Rates of reaction: effect oftemperature 2139 Exothermic andendothermic reactions140 Average bond dissociationenergies141 Catalysts: characteristics142 Catalysts: transitionmetals143 Oxidation and reduction144 Redox reactions 1145 Redox reactions 2146 Demonstrating redoxreactions147 Assigning oxidation state7 CHEMISTRY OF CARBON148 The allotropes of carbon:diamond and graphite149 The allotropes of carbon:fullerenes150 The carbon cycle151 Laboratory preparation ofcarbon oxides152 The fractional distillation ofcrude oil153 Other refining processes154155156157158159160161162163164Carbon chainsNaming hydrocarbonsTable of the first six alkanesTable of the first fivealkenesEthenePolymersPolymers: formationPolymers: table ofproperties and structureFunctional groups andhomologous seriesAlcoholsCarboxylic acids165166167168169170171172173174EstersSoaps and detergentsOrganic compounds: statesFunctional groups andpropertiesReaction summary: alkanesand alkenesReaction summary: alcoholsand acidsOptical isomerismAmino acids and proteinsMonosaccharidesDisaccharides andpolysaccharides8 RADIOACTIVITY175 Ionizing radiation176 Radiation detectors177 Properties of radiations:penetration and range178 Properties of radiations: infields179 Stable and unstableisotopes180 Half-life181 Measuring half-life182 Radioactive isotopes183 Nuclear fusion184 Nuclear fission185 Nuclear reactor186 The uranium series187 The actinium series188 The thorium seriesAPPENDIXES198 Key words205 Internet resources207 Index189 The neptunium series190 Radioactivity of decaysequences191 Table of naturally occurringisotopes 1192 Table of naturally occurringisotopes 2193 Table of naturally occurringisotopes 3194 Table of naturally occurringisotopes 4195 Table of naturally occurringisotopes 5196 Table of naturally occurringisotopes 6197 Table of naturally occurringisotopes 78ATOMIC STRUCTUREFormation of starsKey wordsBig Bangblack holebrown dwarfneutron starprotostarsupernovawhite dwarfBig BangBeginnings● Accordingto the Big Ban g theory, theuniverse resulted from a massiveexplosion that created matter, space,and time.● During the first thee minutes followingthe Big Bang, hydrogen and heliumwere formed as the universe began tocool.Hydrogen and heliumInitial formation© Diagram Visual Information Ltd.were formed when gravity causedclouds of interstellar gas and dust tocontract.
These clouds became denserand hotter, with their centers boilingat about a million kelvins.● These heaps became round, glowingblobs called protostars.● Under the pressure of gravity,contraction continued, and a protostargradually became a genuine star.● A star exists when all solid particleshave evaporated and when light atomssuch as hydrogen have begun buildingheavier atoms through nuclearreactions.● Some cloud fragments do not have themass to ignite nuclear reactions.
Thesebecome brown dwarfs.● The further evolution of stars dependson their size (See page 9).● Stars the size of our Sun will eventuallyshed large amounts of matter andcontract into a very dense remnant—awhite dwarf, composed of carbon andoxygen atoms.● More massive stars collapse quicklyshedding much of their mass indramatic explosions calledsu pern ovae. After the explosion, theremaining material contracts into anextremely dense n eu tron star.● The most massive stars eventuallycollapse from their own gravity toblack holes, whose density is infinite.Gravity● StarsCollected mass of liquidhydrogen and helium1 × Sun10 × SunToo little(Brown dwarf)10 (+)× SunNuclear reaction(hydrogen → helium)Nuclear reaction(hydrogen → carbon)Nuclear reaction(helium → carbon → iron)White dwarf(carbon)BlackholeSupernovaexplosionMany heavy elements+ neutron star9Fate of starsATOMIC STRUCTUREKey words1 The fate of a star the size of our sunacbdefblack holefusionneutron starred giantsupernovawhite dwarfFate of stars● Duringmost of a star’s life, theoutward pressure from nuclear fusionbalances the pull of gravity, but asnuclear fuel is exhausted, gravitycompresses the star inward and thecore collapses.
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