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One of the visible achievements of modern linguistics is the impetuous development of its new branch - the linguistics of the text - within last decades. This new linguistic discipline, the object of which is the coherent text - the completed sequence of the statements, united with each other by semantic connections, has put before itself a task to state the essence of these connections and ways of their realization, to find out the system of grammatical categories of the text with its substantial and formal units, to describe the essence and organization of conditions of the human communication using the material of the text.
From this brief list of the purposes and tasks of the new trends its affinity to the theory of translation becomes clear. [12; 87]
The connection between linguistics of the text standing on the early stage of its development, and the theory of translation, first noticed Yuriy Nida. On his opinion, the theory of translation should take into account some common attributes of the texts, which he has named " the universals of discourse ". To them belong:
1). Various ways of marking of the beginning and the end of the text;
2). Ways of marking of transitions between internal divisions of the coherent text;
3). Temporary connection;
4). Spatial connections;
5). Logic relations (for example, the reason and the consequence);
6). Identification of discourse' participants;
7). Various means of apportionment of this or that elements for focusing on them the attention or for the emphasis;
8). Author involvement, that is, his position and his point of view. [15; 105]
The markers of the beginning and the end of the text include the standard formulas such as " once upon a time " (жили были) and " they lived happily ever after " (и стали они жить поживать, добра наживать).
The markers of internal transitions are the traditional ways of introduction of new divisions of the text such as “on the other hand, however... ” (однако, с другой стороны), “ then all of a sudden..." (и вдруг), “in contrast with all this” (в отличие от всего этого) еtc.
To the markers of the temporary relations belong prepositions of time, the temporary phrases such as “ the next morning ” (на следующее утро), “all that day ” (весь день), relative times such as Future Perfect and Past Perfect, sequence of tenses, e. g. “he said he came”, a sequence of events reflected by the order of words.
Among markers of the spatial relations there are spatial prepositions such as “long way off" (далеко-далеко), “ ten miles long” (длиной в десять миль), “it's a day's trip” (езды туда целый день).
Logic relations are marked with the help of modifying sentence adverbs, such as “moreover" (более), “ therefore" (поэтому), “ nevertheless” (тем не менее); conjunctions introducing subordinate clauses “if", “although", “because"; verbal forms (adverbial, gerundial), depending on the verb expressing the main event; lexical units, expressing the logic relation, such as “ he concluded" (он пришел к выводу), “he argued” (он возразил).
The markers of the consecutive indication on the same reviewer include personal pronouns (he, she, they), demonstrative pronouns (this, that) and synonyms (dog, animal, pet, puppy).
Participants and events can be put in front (to the “ linguistic proscenium”) or they can be removed on a background. We use the complex syntactic structure for this purpose, the hierarchy, with the help of which we mark a place of the participants and events in a described situation.
Participation of the author can be of two types - autobiographical (real or fictitious), the marker of which is the first person pronoun, and estimating, the marker of which are the estimating lexical units: “this was an ugly scene" (это была безобразная сцена).
Characterizing pointed features as “universals of discourse”, Yuriy Nida, at the same time, points out that in the different languages various means are used for their expression. [16; 79]
Thus, for translation it is obviously important, how “universals of discourse" are realized in contacting with each other languages during translation and the results of it for the structuring of the final text. Barhudarov N. S. gives the following example: “You goin' to court this morning? asked Jim. We had strolled over” (Мы подошли к ее забору - “Вы в суд пойдете? ” - спросил Джим). As the marker of temporary relation in English text the relative tense Past Perfect is used, but in Russian the order of sentences appropriates to the real order of events “Then I saw old Pancho come around the corner of the wagon" (Hemingway) (И тут вдруг старина Панчо стал огибать фургон. .) In this example the marker of internal transition then is represented by contextual equivalent и тут вдруг, appropriating to the stylistic norms of the given genre (the narration is in a colloquial manner given by the story-teller). “When he arrives in Paris next week our Foreign Secretary will have to spell out our position” (Когда министр иностранных дел посетит на следующей неделе Париж, он должен будет четко изложить нашу позицию).
The order of two correfent units is changing here during the translation - of a name and personal pronoun, because in Russian language the first pointing with the help of pronoun (such as “Когда он посетит Париж, наш министр иностранных дел..." in the given genre (the newspaper text) is unacceptable.
One of the problems of linguistics of the text traditionally connected with the theory of translation is the actual partitioning or the functional prospect of the sentence. Fruitful for the theory of translation is, in particular, ascending to F. Danesh idea of a thematic progression, according to which the theme cement the text, while rheme serves for transference of new information.
Yu. V. Vannicov has developed the scheme focused on the translation of the typology of texts. This scheme is based on 14 main typological attributes generalizing the properties of text from the point of view of practice of translation [4; 27]:
1). Linguistic organization;
2). Functional style;
3). Functional substyle;
4). Speech modus;
5). Dominant logic contents;
6). Subject (thematic) contents;
7). Form of speech presentation;
8). Genre differentiation;
9). Information primacy - non primacy;
10). Expressive - stylistic mentioning;
11). Basic pragmatic functions;
12). Concrete purposes;
13). Types of adequacy of the text;
14). Types of adequacy of translation.
To the linguistic organization belong oppositions of the texts with rigid structure (scientifically technical) and with soft structure (art). This attribute also takes into account the degree of copula of the text. The functional styles are pointed depending on sphere of communication (scientifically technical, social - business etc) [4; 28].
Typology created by Yu. V. Vannicov can be seemed a little bulky. But its dividing into parts makes it more adequate to the given task - the reflection of real variety of the texts.
The essential advantage of this typology is that it takes into account the presence of mixed and transitive cases as well. So, for example, Yu. V. Vannicov especially points out such functionally non-uniform texts as informing - ordering.
So, as a conclusion to chapter one of this work, it can be said that in the result of the factors mentioned above, different peculiarities might be revealed during translation. They are related to common features and differences between similar functional styles of languages as well as to specific conditions and tasks of translation activity of this type. In the outline of each functional style there are some certain peculiarities and their impact on the procedure and the way of translation are significant. Therefore, in this research work the peculiarities of scientific-technical materials based on electric devices manuals are studied. In the next chapter lexical and grammatical peculiarities have been reviewed.
2. Lexical and grammatical peculiarities of scientific-technical texts
In any scientific and technical text, irrespective of its contents and character, can be completely precisely translated from one language to other, even if in an artwork such branch of knowledge is required, for which in language of translation there is no appropriate nomenclature. In such cases the interpreter more often resorts to interpretation, but becoming of a necessary nomenclature of a realization in a sphere of production or those scientific circles, which are engaged in data by problems.
To ensure valuable translation, it is necessary to an interpreter to present the following requests:
1. The substantial acquaintance to a subject, which is treated in the original text.
2. Good enough knowledge of language of an artwork and its lexical and grammatical features in comparison to the native language.
3. Knowledge of the bases' theory of translation, and also receptions of technical translation and skill to use them.
4. Legible introducing about the character of scientific and technical functional style both in language of the original, and in the native language.
5. Acquaintance to accepted conventional signs, abbreviations (cuttings), systems of measures and weights, both in language of the original and in the native language.
Good possession of the native language and the right use of a nomenclature.
2.1 The characteristic of the scientific and technical language
Having studied the material of scientific-technical texts some of the characteriscts can be determined:
1. The absence of emotional colouring.
This feature basically also causes absolute convertibility of the scientific and technical texts, as the reader should not have stranger associations, he should not read between lines, be admired by the game of words and calamburs. The writer's purpose of the text is to describe either or other phenomenon or operation, this or that subject or process.
It is necessary to mark, that the English language differs by figurativeness, which cannot be transferred to Russian translation.
E. g. “The mother company bore a daughter in the Far East, granted her a dowry of 2.000.000 pounds and christened her…”
If to translate literally, it will sound so:
"Компания мать родила на Дальнем Востоке дочь, дала ей приданное в 2 млн. фунтов стерлингов и окрестила ее…"
After processing is obtained:
"Эта компания организовала на Дальнем Востоке дочернюю компанию и выделила ей капитал в 2 млн. фунтов стерлингов; новая компания стала именоваться…"
2.rushing to clearness and shortness.
The rushing to clearness discovers expression in application of legible grammar constructions and lexical units, and also in the wide use of a nomenclature. As a rule, the placed terms will be utilized conventional,, though meet and terminoids (terms, having circulation in a narrow orb), which considerably hamper translation. The rushing to a multiplicity expresses in wide application of infinitive, gerundial and subordinate clauses, abbreviations (cuttings) and conventional signs.
3. The special semantic load of some words of ordinary colloquial speech.
The rethinking of words of ordinary speech is one of productive methods of the new terms' construction.
E. g. to put out - in ordinary speech "гасить огонь", but for sailors - "выходить в море"
Stroke - in ordinary speech "удар", but for mechanic - "ход поршня"
Hoe - "мотыга", but for builders - "обратная лопата"
This property of words is an especially dangerous source of difficulties and errors for an initial translator.
4. Rate, distinct from literary language, of the words' use of the basic dictionary fund. The lexicon of the scientific and technical literature is much poorer than lexicon of art products. Therefore rate of separate elements of common lexicon of the scientific and technical literature is higher than rate of elements of lexicon of art products, thus the literary - book words and expressions, foreign drawings, scarcity of portable and contextual meanings treat to characteristic features of scientific and technical style.
5. Distinction from the literary language rate of the use and relative importance of some grammar shapes and constructions.
In the engineering literature Passive Voice is used in 16 times more often, than in art. The definition in the engineering literature is used in 3 times more often, than in art.
6. Scarcity of the idioms' use.
The idiomatic word collocations are original irresolvable expressions having particular sense, frequently independent from elements, included in them. The idioms always have some emotional colouring and consequently are not entered in the scientific and technical texts.
7. Application of abbreviations (cuttings) and conventional signs.
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