Беликова Е.К., Саратовская Л.Б. - The United Kingdom and United States of America in Past and Present (1268141), страница 26
Текст из файла (страница 26)
Yet it is sometimes difficult for ordinary Americans todistinguish between the parties. Furthermore, the traditional Europeanterms of “right” and “left”, or “conservative” and “liberal” do not fit theAmerican system. Even if the candidates have been elected as Democratsor Republicans, Representatives or Senators are not bound to a partyprogram, nor are they subject to any discipline when they disagree withtheir party.
While some voters vote a “straight ticket’ in other words, forall of the Republican or Democratic candidates in an election, the most ofthem do not. They may vote for one party’s candidate for one office andanother’s for another one.In the U.S., the parties cannot win seats, which they are then free tofill with party members they have chosen. Rather, both Representativesand Senators are elected to serve the interests of the “people-and the areasthe represent, that is, their “constituencies”. In about 70 percent oflegislative decisions, Congressmen will vote with the specific wishes oftheir constituencies in mind, even if this goes against what their ownparties might want as national policy. It is quite common, in fact, to findDemocrats in Congress voting for a Republican President’s legislationand quite a few republicans voting against it.ElectionsAll American citizen, (at least 18 years of age), may take part inelections.
Before the elections take place the Americans who want to votemust register. There are 50 different registration laws in the U.S (one setfor each state). Both voter registration and voting has dramaticallyincreased during the last twenty years, especially as a result of the CivilRights policy. Some civic groups, e.g. the League of Women Voters, areactively trying to get more people involved in the electoral process andhave drives to register as many people as possible.Legislators (Senators and Congressmen) are elected fromgeographical districts directly by the voters according to the principle102“one person, one vote”. Under this principle, all election districts musthave about the same number of residents. Almost all elections in the USAfollow “the winner – take – air principle”: i.e., the candidate who winsthe largest number of votes in a Congressional district is the winner.The national presidential election consists of two separatecampaigns: one is for the nomination of candidates at national partyconventions.
The other is to win the actual election. The nominating raceis a competition between members of the same party. They run in asuccession of state primaries and caucuses (which take place betweenMarch arid June). They hope to gain a majority of delegate votes for theirnational party conventions (in July of August). At the party conventionhaving now almost theatrical character (bands, balloons, lot of noise,etc.)the party’s official candidate for the presidency is selected. Thefollows presidential campaign that follows after begins very early andcontinues until election in early November when the candidates makefinal television appearances and appeal for the votes.
Presidentialcampaigns also include major expenses, apart from TV and radio and thepress advertising, such as the travel costs of the candidate and his staff,their salaries and campaign literature. Such publicity items as campaignpins and bumper stickers are also widely used. All these tremendouscampaign costs are financed with federal funds with equal amounts ofmoney for each major party. At the time of the primary campaigns thecompeting candidates may also receive private contributions. Everycampaign attracts hundreds of unpaid workers at the grass roots, or localpolitical level.In November of the election year (years divisible by four, e.g.
1988,1992, 1996, etc.), the voters across the nation go to the polls. If themajority of the popular votes in a state go to the Presidential (and Vice Presidential) candidate of one party, then that person is supposed to getall of that state’s “electoral votes”. These electoral votes are equal to thenumber of senators and Representatives each state has in Congress.
Thecandidate with the largest number of these electoral votes wins theelection. The «Electoral College» formally reports each state’s electoralvotes, a procedure established by the constitution.In recent years there has been discussion about eliminating the ElectoralCollege procedure. Many people think it is awkward and undemocratic.Opponents of the Electoral College favor the direct election of the103president and vice-president. Others believe that in a close popularelection only the Electoral College can clearly establish the winner.In January of the following year, in a joint session of Congress, thenew President and Vice – President are officially announced.
Theceremony of inauguration always takes place at noon on January 20. Thepresident’s Inauguration speech is regarded as a declaration of principlesproclaimed by the new Administration.Executive Power.The President and the vice – president of the United States are electedevery four years to a four –year term of office, with no more than two fullterms allowedThe President chooses the fourteen cabinetmembers who head departments, such as Justice,Defense, or Education; chooses who will run asvice president; appoints federal judges; choosesheads of agencies such as the FBI and CIA;proposes laws, and approves federal laws afterCongress has approved them; appoints US ambassadors to foreigncountries; bears the responsibilities of relations with foreign countries andcommander- in chief of armed forces. Since the time the very firstAmerican President so – called “father of the nation” George Washingtonwas elected there have been 42 presidents in the USA. Nine presidentswere elected for two terms.
Four American presidents were assassinated:Abraham Lincoln (1865), James Garfield (1881), William McKinley(1901) and John Kennedy (1963).The Vice President leads the Senate and combined meetings of bothhouses of Congress, .serves on special government committees and.becomes president if the president must leave office.The Cabinet together with the president, the cabinet members (13) formthe government.
They advise on issues related to their departments.The USA Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government,is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives.There are 100 Senators, two from each state. One third of the Senators areelected every two years for six – year terms of office. The Senatorsrepresent all of the people in a state and their interests.The House of Representatives has 435 representatives.
They are electedevery two years for two – year terms. They represent the population of“congressional districts” into which each state is divided. The number of104Representatives from each state is based upon its population. Forinstance, California, the state with the largest population, has 45Representatives, while Delaware has only one. There is no limit to thenumber of terms a Senator or a Representative may serve.Congress proposes and approves federal laws; can declare war; decidesupon taxes and money budget; approves the choice of federal judges;regulates commerce among the states and with foreign countries; setsrules for the naturalization of foreign citizens.A new Congress session begins on the 3rd of January each odd –numbered year and continues for two years.
The most of congressmen’swork is done in committee meetings. There are 16 “standing”, orpermanent, committees in the Senate and 22 in the House ofRepresentatives. Here the bills (offered by either house) are studied,experts are consulted, and recommendations are made. Because theCongressmen on a committee are experts in that field, they accept andimprove some bills, but reject most of them. The committee responsiblefor a particular bill holds hearings on it. Experts appear before thecommittee and offer suggestions and opinions about the bill. After thehearings, the committee reports its recommendations to the House.
Theserecommendations may include suggested changes in the bill, or thecommittee may propose an entirely new ones. Generally Congress goesalong with the decisions of its committees. For a bill to become a law itmust be passed by both the House and the Senate and signed byPresident. If President disapproves, he vetoes the bill by refusing to signit and sends it back to Congress. To overcome President’s veto the billmust get a two-thirds majority in each chamber.Americans always concerned that their politicians represent theirinterests, often form “pressure” groups, political lobbies, public actioncommittees (PACs), or special interest groups.
Such groups influencepoliticians on almost any imaginable subject. One group might campaignfor a nationwide, federal gun-control law, while another group opposes itIn the previous centuries people who wanted to hand in petition or todiscuss some project went to Washington, to the Capitol and there metthe Congressmen from their states. The tradition is still alive, only todayit is big corporations, social organizations, foreign diplomats, etc. who tryto influence law – making in their favor. This is done with the help oflobbyists who arrange meetings with Congressmen, and through briberyand persuasion make them vote for measures favorable to the group they105represent.
Practically lobbyist (backstage influencing of legislation) hasbecome legal, it means, that the passing of a bill can be prevented if itdoes not suit the interests of a definite group of Big BusinessThe delicate art of influencing legislation has moved a great distancefrom the days when votes were bought with black cases full of money.Today’s successful lobbyists are more likely to be smooth professionals.But if lobbying techniques have grown complicated, the name of thephenomenon is still the same: special interest. Lobbyists may callthemselves legislative counsels or Washington representatives, but theyare still hired to sell their client’s special interests.Although a 1946 law requires all lobbyists to register with the clerks ofboth chambers of Congress, and to give annual reports of the money usedfor this or that bill, the most effective lobbyists seldom do.
![](https://s.studizba.com/z.php?f=/templates/si/i/noavatar.png&w=100&h=100&t=1"){kind=avatar}
