Computer Science. The English Language Perspective - Беликова (1176925), страница 12
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Businesslanguages are characterized by facilities for producing elaboratereports, precise ways of describing and storing decimalnumbers and character data, and the ability to specifyarithmetic operations.With the advent of personal computers came new ways forbusinesses to use computers. Two specific tools that can be usedon small computers, spreadsheet systems and databasesystems, were developed for business and now are widelyused, in both homes and businesses.Artificial Intelligence.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a broadarea of computer applications characterized by the use ofsymbolic rather than numeric computations. Symboliccomputation means that symbols, consisting of names ratherthan numbers, are manipulated. Also, symbolic computation ismore conveniently done with linked lists of data rather than70arrays. This kind of programming sometimes requires moreflexibility than other programming domains.The first widely used programming language developed for AIapplications was the functional language LISP, which appearedin 1959.
During the early 1970s, however, an alternativeapproach to some of these applications appeared – logicprogramming using the Prolog language. More recently, someAI applications have been written in scientific languages suchas C.Systems programming. The operating system and all of theprogramming support tools of a computer system arecollectively known as its systems software.
Systems software isused continuously and therefore must be efficient. Therefore, alanguage for this domain must provide fast execution.Furthermore, it must have low-level features that allow thesoftware interfaces to external devices to be written.In the 1960s and 1970s, some computer manufacturers, such asIBM, Digital, and Burroughs (now UNYSYS), developed specialmachine-oriented high-level languages for systems software ontheir machines: PL/S, BLISS, and ALGOL.The UNIX operating system is written almost entirely in C,which has made it relatively easy to port to different machines.Some of the characteristics of C make it a good choice forsystems programming.
It is low-level, execution-efficient, anddoes not burden the user with many safety restrictions.Web software. The WWW is supported by an eclectic collectionof languages, ranging from mark-up languages, such asXHTML, which is not a programming language, to generalpurpose programming languages, such as Java. XHTMLprovides a way of embedding presentation instructions in thepages of information, which could include text, images, sound,or animation, that constitute Web content. These instructionsare targeted to presentation devices, which could be browserdisplays, printers, or other devices.
Because of the pervasive71need for dynamic Web content, some computation capability isoften included in the technology of content presentation. Thisfunctionality can be provided by embedding a programmingcode in an XHTML document. Such code is often in the form ofa scripting language, such as PHP or Python.Notes:UNYSYS – компьютерная компания в США, основана в1986 г.XHTML (Extensible Hypertext Markup Language) –расширяемый язык гипертекстовой разметкиPHP (Hypertext Preprocessor) – скриптовый языкпрограммирования общего назначения, применяемый дляразработки веб-приложенийAssignments1.
Translate the sentences from the text into Russian inwriting paying attention to the underlined words andphrases:1. Computers have been applied to a myriad of differentareas, from controlling nuclear power plants toproviding video games in mobile phones.2. A C programmer is perfectly content to work at a levelof abstraction that requires specification of computationsusing arrays and indices, while an author of a reportprefers to “program” using a language consisting of thefunctions of a word-processor.3. The most common data structures are arrays andmatrices; the most common control structures arecounting loops and selections.4.
Special computers were developed for this purpose,along with special language.725. Symbolic computation is more conveniently done withlinked lists of data rather than arrays.6. Systems software is used continuously and thereforemust be efficient.7. It is low-level, execution-efficient, and does not burdenthe user with many safety restrictions.2.
Answer the following questions:1. Why are there programming languages with differentgoals?2. What makes a programming language successful?3. What requirements should a language for scientificapplications meet?4. How can business languages be characterized?5.
What is an efficient language for systems programming?6. Why is the WWW supported by an eclectic collection oflanguages?3. Translate into English:Информационные технологии играют все болеезначимую роль в человеческом обществе. Они проникли вовсе сферы деятельности. Для обслуживания общественныхпотребностей в автоматизации труда, хранения данных,связи и др. развиваются языки программирования. Еслираньше языки программирования использовались лишьдлясозданияпрограммдляавтоматизациивычислительных процессов, то на сегодняшний день онииспользуются для решения более разнообразных задач.Изучение истории языков программирования, ихразнообразия и особенностей позволяет программистусделать правильный выбор при выборе языка для решенияопределенной задачи.Все многообразие языков программирования делят наразличные классы в зависимости от решаемых ими задач.73Было замечено, что в процессе развития языкипрограммирования, входящие в один класс, сближаютсямеждусобой.Хотясаморазнообразиеклассовувеличивается, т.к.
увеличивается сфера задач, решаемых спомощью компьютерных технологий.Следует также отметить и развитие языковпрограммирования в сторону спецификации, когдаопределенные языки наиболее пригодны для решенияузкого класса задач.4. Give the summary of the text using the key terms.BASIC TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGESRead the following words and word combinations and usethem for understanding and translation of the text:assignment statement – инструкция присваиванияimperative language – императивный язык, процедурныйязыкiterative – итеративный, повторныйsimulationpackage–пакетимитационногомоделированияfunctional,orapplicativelanguage–языкфункционального программирования, аппликативныйязыкconciseness – краткостьto be consistent with – согласовываться с...overhead - затратыdispatching – диспетчеризация, управлениеto enhance – усиливатьdrag-and-drop – буксировка, перетаскиваниеcontrol flow – управляющая логика, поток управленияdeclaration – объявление, описаниеquery – запрос74to retrieve data – извлекать данныеcustom tags – пользовательские тегиdata encryption – шифрование данныхgate model – модель логической схемы на вентильномуровнеquantum cellular automata – квантовая сотовая автоматикаto be embedded into – встроенный в...insofar – в такой степени...The basic architecture of computers has had a profound effecton language design.
Most of the popular languages of the past50 years have been designed around the von Neumannarchitecture. These languages are called imperative languages.Because of the von Neumann architecture, the central featuresof imperative languages are variables, assignment statements,and the iterative form of repetition. In these languages analgorithm is specified in great detail, and the specific order ofexecution of the instructions or statements must be included.The syntax and the semantics of the imperative languages arevery complex. In an imperative language, the programmermust make a static division of the program into its concurrentparts, which are then written as tasks.
Concurrent execution inimperative language can be a complicated process. The mostefficient imperative languages are C and FORTRAN.An imperative language uses a sequence of statements todetermine how to reach a certain goal. These statements aresaid to change the state of the program as each one is executedin turn.All the languages we have discussed have one trait in common:the basic statement is the assignment statement whichcommands the computer to move data from one place toanother. This is actually a relatively low level of abstractioncompared to the level of the problems we want to solve withcomputers. Newer languages prefer to describe a problem and75let the computer figure out how to solve it, rather thanspecifying in great detail how to move data around.Modern software packages are really highly abstractprogramming languages.
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