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303Figure 10.5 Computer model of the NPL Electrical Nanobalancedevice. The area shown is 980 mm 560 mm.Dimensions perpendicular to the plane have beenexpanded by a factor of twenty for clarity ............................ 305Figure 10.6 Schema of a resonant force sensor – the nanoguitar ........... 306xxiiiThis page intentionally left blankTablesTable 3.1Table 3.2Table 4.1Table 4.2Table 4.3Table 6.1Table 7.1Table 7.2Table 7.3Table 8.1Table 8.2TableTableTableTableTable8.38.48.58.68.7Sources of seismic vibration and correspondingfrequencies [27] ......................................................................... 48Possible sources of very-low-frequency vibration .....................

49Gauge block classes according to ISO 3650 [5] ....................... 58The quality factor and coherence length of some lightsources ....................................................................................... 63Effect of parameters on refractive index:RH is relative humidity ............................................................ 78Minimum distance between features fordifferent objectives .................................................................. 129Overview of guidance deviations, standards to be usedand calibration measurements [12] ........................................

189Examples of surface forces commonly encountered inAFM measurement ................................................................. 193Various substances that have been linked to AFM tipsor cantilevers ........................................................................... 195Relationship between cut-off wavelength, tip radius (rtip)and maximum sampling spacing [12] .................................... 216Relationships between nesting index value, S-filter nestingindex, sampling distance and ball radius ...............................

233Types of scale-limited features ................................................ 244Criteria of size for segmentation ............................................ 244Methods for determining significant features ........................ 248Feature attributes .................................................................... 249Attribute statistics ...................................................................

249xxvxxviTablesTable 10.1Table 10.2Summary of surface interaction force equations. In theseequations F is a force component, U the work functiondifference between the materials, D the sphere-flatseparation, g the free surface energies at state boundaries,H the Hamaker constant and q the contact angle ofin-interface liquid on the opposing solid surfaces. In thecapillary force the step function u(.) describes the breakingseparation; e is the liquid layer thickness and r the radiusof meniscus curvature in the gap .........................................

298Advantages and disadvantages of low-force production andmeasurement methods ......................................................... 307CHAPTER 1Introduction to metrology formicro- and nanotechnologyThere are many stories of wonderful new machines and changes in lifestyle that will be brought about by the commercial exploitation of microand nanotechnology (MNT) (see, for example, references 1-3). However,despite significant increases in funding for research into MNT across theglobe, the commercial success to date has not been as high as has beenpredicted. At the smaller of the two scales, most work in nanotechnology isstill very much at the research stage. However, in the more mature worldof microsystems technology (MST) there is already a significant industry inits own right.

In fact, the MST industry has now matured to such anextent that it is undergoing dramatic change and restructuring, along thelines followed previously by conventional engineering and macro-scaletechnology. Despite overall steady growth in the total market, particularsectors and individual companies are experiencing difficult times; acquisitions, mergers and even bankruptcies are becoming commonplace. It isasserted that what the MNT industry needs is a standards infrastructurethat will allow fabrication plants to interchange parts, packaging anddesign rules; effectively the MNT equivalent of macro-scale nuts and boltsor house bricks.

This will not stifle innovation; on the contrary, it willallow designers and inventors to have more time to consider the innovativeaspects of their work, rather than having to waste time ‘re-inventing thewheel’.The results of recent government reviews [3] and surveys in Europe [4]and the USA [5] clearly indicate that standardization is the major issue thatis hampering commercial success of the MST industry.

This book considersa subset of the metrology that will be required in the near future to supporta standards infrastructure for MNT. If interchangeability of parts is tobecome a reality, then fabrication plants need to move away from ‘in-house’or ‘gold’ standards, and move towards measurement standards andFundamental Principles of Engineering NanometrologyCopyright Ó 2010 by Elsevier Inc.

All rights reserved.CONTENTSWhat is engineeringnanometrology?The contents of thisbookReferences12C H A P T ER 1 : Introduction to metrology for micro- and nanotechnologytechniques that are traceable to national or international realisations of themeasurement units [6].Progress in MNT is not just of interest at the academic level. There isa considerable advantage in being able to reach a sufficient number of marketswith new devices and materials to be able to recover development costs. Thereis consequently much effort devoted not only to development of MNT devicesand materials, but also to maximising market uptake and transfer of technology from the research stage, through production, out to the commercialmarketplace. In many cases, examination of the barriers preventing successfuluptake of new technology reveals some areas of metrology where there needsto be more research than is carried out at the moment.

Also, metrology doesnot just allow control of production but can allow legal, ethical and safetyissues [7] to be settled in a quantitative and informative manner.There is a major thrust in standardization for MNT activities in manynational and regional committees. The International Organization forStandardization (ISO) has recently set up ISO technical committee (TC) 229.The IEC has also established TC 113 to complement electrical activities.Recognising that there is an intersection between matter and radiation at theMNT level, several of the working groups are collaborations between ISO andIEC.

The Joint Working Groups (JWGs) are divided into terminology andnomenclature (JWG1), measurement and characterization (JWG2) and twosole ISO WGs on health, safety and environment (WG3) and product specifications and performance (WG4). The main work of the committees so farhas been to define common definitions for nanotechnology and to issuereviews of handling engineered nanomaterials in the workplace. Measurement and characterization standards are currently being developed especiallyfor carbon nanotube analysis. This work is also being complemented byactivities in Europe that are coordinated by CEN TC 352. There are alsomany well-established and related ISO committees that are not exclusivelyMNT but cover aspects of engineering nanometrology; for example, ISO TC213, which covers surface texture standards, and ISO TC 201, which coversmany of the standardization issues for scanning probe microscopes, and ISOTC 209 (cleanroom technologies) is also forming a working group (WG10) onnanotechnology considerations.1.1 What is engineering nanometrology?The field of engineering metrology relates to the measurement and standardization requirements for manufacturing.

In the past, engineeringmetrology mainly covered dimensional metrology, i.e. the science andThe contents of this booktechnology of length measurement (see [8,9]). Modern engineering metrologyusually encompasses dimensional plus mass and related quantity metrology.Some authors have also incorporated materials metrology into the fold [10]and this is an important inclusion.

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