Müller I. A history of thermodynamics. The doctrine of energy and entropy (Müller I. A history of thermodynamics. The doctrine of energy and entropy.pdf), страница 2

201ContentsIXPlanck Distribution.......................................................................... 204Energy Quanta................................................................................. 207Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck.......................................................

209Photoelectric Effect and Light Quanta ............................................ 211Radiation and Atoms ....................................................................... 212Photons, a New Name for Light Quanta ......................................... 214Photon Gas ......................................................................................

216Convective Equilibrium .................................................................. 222Arthur Stanley Eddington................................................................ 2278Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes..................................233Phenomenological Equations ...........................................................233● Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier…………………………………..

233● Adolf Fick……………………………………………………...237● George Gabriel Stokes…………………………………………239Carl Eckart………………………………………………………. 242Onsager Relations……………………………………………….. 248Rational Thermodynamics………………………………………. 250Extended Thermodynamics………………………………………255● Formal Structure ……………………………………………….255● Symmetric Hyperbolic Systems ……………………………….256● Growth and Decay of Waves…………………………………..258● Characteristic Speeds in Monatomic Gases……………………259● Carlo Cattaneo …………………………………………………261● Field Equations for Moments…………………………………..265● Shock Waves …………………………………………………..267● Boundary Conditions…………………………………………..2689Fluctuations ....................................................................................

273Brownian Motion .............................................................................273Brownian Motion as a Stochastic Process........................................275Mean Regression of Fluctuations .....................................................279Auto-correlation Function ................................................................281Extrapolation of Onsager´s Hypothesis............................................282Light Scattering ................................................................................282More Information About Light Scattering .......................................28610Relativistic Thermodynamics ........................................................289Ferencz Jüttner ................................................................................

289White Dwarfs .................................................................................. 293Subramanyan Chandrasekhar .......................................................... 296Maximum Characteristic Speed ...................................................... 299XContentsBoltzmann-Chernikov Equation...................................................... 300Ott-Planck Imbroglio....................................................................... 30311Metabolism ...................................................................................... 307Carbon Cycle.................................................................................. 308Respiratory Quotient ......................................................................

309Metabolic Rates ............................................................................. 312Digestive Catabolism ..................................................................... 313Tissue Respiration .......................................................................... 315Anabolism ...................................................................................... 316On Thermodynamics of Metabolism.............................................. 319What is Life? .................................................................................. 320Index.......................................................................................................... 3251TemperatureTemperature – also temperament in the early days – measures hot and coldand the word is, of course, Latin in origin: temperare - to mix.

It was mostlyused when liquids are mixed which cannot afterwards be separated, likewine and water. The passive voice is employed – the ‘‘-tur” of the presenttense, third person singular – which indicates that some liquid is beingmixed with another one.For Hippokrates (460–370 B.C.), the eminent, half legendary Greek physician, proper mixing was important: An imbalance of the bodily fluidsblood, phlegm, and black and yellow bile was supposed to lead to diseasewhich made the body unusually hot or cold or dry or moist.Klaudios Galenos (133–200 A.C.), vulgarly Galen, – another illustriousGreek physician, admirer of Hippokrates and polygraph on medicalmatters – took up the idea and elaborated on it.

He assumed an influence ofthe climate on the mix of body fluids which would then determine thecharacter, or temperament (sic), of a person. Thus body and soul of theinhabitants of the cold and wet north were wild and savage, while those ofthe people in the hot and dry south were meek and flaccid. And it was onlyin the well-mixed – temperate – zone that people lived with superiorproperties in regard to good judgement and intellect,1 the Greeks naturallyand, perhaps, the Romans.Galen mixed equal amounts if ice and boiling water, which he consideredthe coldest and hottest bodies available. He called the mixture neutral,2 andinstalled four degrees of cold below that neutral point, and four degrees ofhot above it.

That rough scale of nine degrees survived the dark age ofscience under the care of Arabian physicians, and it re-emerged in Europeduring the time of the Renaissance.Thus in the year 1578, when Johannis Hasler from Berne published hisbook ‘‘De logistica medica”, he presented an elaborate table of bodytemperatures of people in relation to the latitude under which they live, cf.Fig. 1.1. Dwellers of the tropics were warm to the fourth degree while the1Galen: ‘‘Daß die Vermögen der Seele eine Folge der Mischungen des Körpers sind.” [Thatthe faculties of the soul follow from the composition of the body] Abhandlungen zurGeschichte der Medizin und Naturwissenschaften. Heft 21. Kraus Reprint Liechtenstein(1977).2 It is not clear whether Galen mixed equal amounts by mass or volume; he does not say.

Inthe first case his neutral temperature is 10°C in the latter it is 14°C; neither one is of anyobvious relevance to medicine.21 Temperatureeskimos were cold to the fourth degree. Persons between latitudes 40° and50°, where Hasler lived, were neither hot nor cold; they were given theneutral temperature zero.One must admit that the idea has a certain plausibility and, indeed, thenine degrees of temperature fit in neatly with the 90 degrees of latitudebetween the equator and the pole.

However, it was all quite wrong: Allhealthy human beings have the same body temperature, irrespective ofwhere they live. That fact became soon established after the invention of thethermometer.Fig . 1.1. Hasler’s table of body temperatures in relation to latitudeThe instrument was developed in the early part of the 17th century. Thedevelopment is painstakingly researched and well-described – as much as itcan be done – by W.E. Knowles Middleton in his book on the history of thethermometer.3 Another excellent review may be found in a booklet byYa.A.

Smorodinsky.4 It is not clear who invented the instrument. Middletoncomplains that questions of priority are loaded with embarrassment for thehistorian of science…, and he indicates that the answers are often biased bynationalistic instincts.3W.E. Knowles Middleton: ‘‘The History of the Thermometer and its Use in Meteorology”.The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland (1966).Hasler table of body temperatures, cf. Fig.1.1, is the frontispiece of that book.4 Ya.A.

Smorodinsky: “Temperature”. MIR Publishers, Moscow (1984).1 Temperature3So also in the case of the thermometer: According to Middleton therewas some inconclusive bickering about priority across the Alps, betweenEngland and Italy. One thing is certain though: The eminent scientistGalileo Galilei (1564–1642) categorically claimed the priority for himself.And his pupil, the Venetian diplomat Gianfrancesco Sagredo accepted thatclaim after at first being unaware of it. Sagredo experimented with thethermometer and on May 9th, 1613 he wrote to the master 5:The instrument for measuring heat, invented by your excellent self …[hasshown me] various marvellous things, as, for example, that in winter theair may be colder than ice or snow; …Another quaint observation on well-water is communicated by Sagredoto Galilei on February 7th, 1615, cf.