Теоретическая фонетика английского языка (Теоретическая фонетика английского языка М.А. Соколова, И.С.Тихонова, Р.М.Тихонова, Е.Л.Фрейдина. - Дубна; Феникс+, 2010. - 192 с.), страница 11

It is common knowledge that a vowel like any sound has physical duration ­time which is required for its production. When sounds are used is connectedspeech they are influenced by one another. Duration is one ofthe characteristicsofa vowel which is modified by and depends on the following factors:1) its own length; 2) the accent of the :'Vlli::lUlv 3) phonetic context; 43I's. The System of English Phonemes4) the position of the sound in a syllable;5) the position in a rhythmic group;6) the position in a tone group;7) the position in a phrase;8) the position in the utterance;9) the tempo ofthe whole utterance;10) the type of pronunciation;11) the style of pronunciation.The question is whether vowel length can be treated as a relevant featureof the English vowel system.The theoretical conclusion here is based on two laws characterizing anysystem.l. A relevant feature must characterize a number of units.

Let us con­sider palatalization in Russian. Compare: ell - eJlb, pao PIlO, Hoe - H06bso on. Those oppositions form a correlation system. Any correlationhave a number of oppositions. A sign of correlation is a distinctivercature ofa number of phonemes. The analysis of English vowels shows thatLhey can hardly form quantitative correlation. The correlations that are of­len brought about are as follows:[I][u][A][i:][u:][a:]Let us analyze each of these pairs.In actual speech the sounds [i:] and [u:] are normally realized in RP asdiphthongized vowels. So [1] and [u] are opposed to diphthongoids but notto long monophthongs.The opposition [3:1- [a] is a fairly specific one because the [a] phonemenever occurs in a stressed syllable and forms the core ofunstressed vocalismin English.

The phoneme [3:] seldom occurs in an unstressed position.The opposition [a:] - [A] is arbitrary. As a result there is only one pair ofopposed phonemes remaining, [;):] [n]. That means that quantitative cor­relation exists only in one position, so on this ground it cannot be treated asa phonologically relevant feature.2. A feature can be systemic ifit does not depend on the context. As to theabsolute length of English historically long and historically short vowels it var­ies and depends on a lot offactors, the first being phonetic context.

A. C. Gim­son points out that [i:] in beat is only half about as long as the fi:l of bee and44Chapter 1. The Fu~ctional Aspect of Speech Soundsmay approximately have the same duration as the [I] vowel in bid because it isgenerally known that a voiced consonant following a vowel increases itslength. But still the words bid and bead are perceived as different words be­cause the vowels are different in quality, [I] being front-retracted, puremonophthong, and [i:] being front close (narrow variation) and a diphthon­gized vowel. The conclusion that follows is that vowel quantity cannot beconsidered a minimal distinctive feature since it varies under the influence ofdifferent phonetic context. So it is an incidental feature that characterizesvowels of a certain quality.

Summarizing we may say that this is an approachto quantity of English vowels from phonological point ofview.It may be worth mentioning that the [ee] vowel being classed as histori­cally short tends to be lengthened in Modern English, especially beforelenis consonants [b], [d], [g], [d3], [m], [nl, [z].ln this position [ee] has thesame quantity as long vowels [i:], [a:], [J:], [u:], [3:]. This extra length, asA. C. Gimson points out, serves an additional distinctive feature and thequalitative-quantitative relation of [ee] - [e] tends to become of the sametype as [i:] [I].

From this point ofview [ee] can possibly belong to the sub­class of long vowels, and consequently the twelve English long vowel pho­nemes may be divided into six phonetic pairs which members differ both inquality and in quantity and of the two factors it is likely that the quality car­ries the greater contrastive weight.There is one more articulatory characteristic that requires our attention.That is tenseness. It characterizes the state ofthe organs ofspeech at the momentofthe production ofvowels. Special instrumental analysis shows that historicallylong vowels are tense while historically short vowels are lax. This characteristic isof extra-phonological type so tenseness may be considered an indispensableconcomitant feature ofEnglish long vowels.

On these grounds it can be includedinto classificatory description of vowels because it might be helpful in teachingstudents ofEnglish since there are no tense vowels in Russian.Summarizing we could say that phonological analysis of articulatoryfeatures of English vowels allows us to consider as functionally relevant thefollowing one characteristic: tongue position.The rest of the features mentioned above, i. e.lip position, character ofvowel end, length and tenseness are indispensable constituents of vowelquality. Though they have no phonological value they are quite important inteaching English phonetics.We might conclude by saying that we have tried to look at the consonan­tal and vocalic systems of the English language from phonological point ofview.

This sort of analysis enables us to defme what properties displayed by,5. The System of English Phonemes45I \nglish sounds are significant in making them items of a system. Special(beus should be given to phonologically relevant features because they form(he basis of the pronunciation system of the language. Non-relevant indis­pensable features should also be acquired as they form the basis of what ist'ulled a "foreign accent". \\Ie should remember that the quality of a speechtiuund is constituted by articulatory features of both kinds.1.5.3.

Modifications of speech sounds in connected speechIn connected speech sounds do not function as isolated units, theIr ar­Ikulation is affected by their phonetic environment. In other words, speechNounds influence each other in the chain ofspeech. Modifications ofspeechfloLlnds that occur due to this influence are called assimilation, accomoda­lion and elision.Assimilation is the modification of a consonant under the influence oft lie neighbouring consonant. Accommodation is the process ofmutual influ­ence of consonants and vowels.

Elision is a complete reduction of sounds,vowels and consonants.These processes are generally accounted for by two factors. The first is(hc economy ofpronouncing efforts on the part ofthe speaker, whose aim islu convey information effectively within the shortest possible time. The sec­ond is purely physiological: it is the degree of mobility of particular organsspeech.

Under the influence of these factors segments undergo certaindlanges and all sorts of simplifications take place. It should be mentionedIhat these phonetic modifications do not affect the meaning of utteranceslind do not create barriers in communication, since they are perceived by(he listener as normal allophonic realisations. However, foreign learners ofI (nglish should be aware of phonetic adjustments in connected speech, be­l;llUse ignoring them may lead to a strong accent.or1.5.3.1. Modifications of consonantsIn modern English consonants undergo various qualitative changes in(lie chain of speech. The most common type of such changes is assimila­I ion. Assimilation takes place when a consonant is adjusted in order to be­t~()memore like a neighbouring sound.

Assimilation occurs both within aword and at word boundaries. Assimilation can affect the place of articula­tion, manner of articulation, work of the vocal cords and force of articula­Iion, lip position.46Chapter I. The Functional Aspect of Speech Sounds,~\Changes in the place ofarticulation1. The alveolar allophones [t, d, n, 1] are replaced by dental variants when followed by the interdental [8, (j] (incomplete regressive assimilation): eighth, at the, breadth, on the, all that.2. The alveolar [t, d] become post-alveolar under the influence ofthe post­(incompleteassimilation): tree, true, dry, the third 3.

[5, z] turn into UJ before [J] (complete regressive assimilation): horseshoe, ['h::>:JJu'], this shop _4. Nasal sonorants [n, m] are influenced by the following consonant: bila­bial [m] and alveolar [n] become labio-dental when followed by labio­dental [f, v]: triumph, infant, comfort, symphony. [n] becomes palato­alveolar before the affricate [tf], pinch; in thank it assimilates to the velar[k] and becomes velar.Changes in the manner ofarticulation1. Loss ofplosion.

In the sequence oftwo plosive consonants the first los­es its plosion (incomplete regressive assimilation): glad to see you,great trouble, an old clock, big cat.2. Nasal plosion. When a plosive is followed by nasal sonorants [m, n], atthe release stage the soft palate is lowered and the air escapes throughthe nasal cavity with a slight plosion (incomplete regressive assimila­tion): sudden, not now, at night, let me see.3. Lateral plosion. In the sequence ofa plosive immediately followed bylateral sonorant [1] the release is made with lowering of the sidesof the tongue and the air escapes along the sides of the tongue withlateral plosion: settle, table, at last (incomplete regressive assimila­tion).Changes in the work ofthe vocal cordsThis type of assimilation affects the work of the vocal cords and force of articulation.

1. English sonorants [m, n, r, w, 1] are partially devoiced when preceded byfortis voiceless consonants [p, t, k, 5] (incomplete progressive assimila­tion): smart, tray, quick, twins, play, pride. This type of assimilation iscommon in English, but very rare in Russian.2. Fortis voiceless/lenis voiced type regressive assimilation can be observedin such words as newspaper (news [z] + paper), gooseberry (goose [5] +berry). At word boundaries voiced lenis fricatives are commonly assimi­1.5. The SystemPhonemes47lated to the initial voiceless fortis consonant of the following word: she'sjive, have to do it, does Pete like it? It should be noted that only fricativesare affected by this type of assimilation, while plosives [b, d, g] remainvoiced in similar context, big size, goodfellow.3.