Linguistic course (exams) (638528), страница 2
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In both languages the functions of different cases are different. In Russian only a nominative case can be the subject. Only an accusative case may be a direct object, only a nominative or an instrumental case is used as a predicative. In English the possessive case is used practically as an attribute.
№10. The category of state in E&R compare.
In both languages exist such as asleep, awake, alike, хорошо, душно. This words expressed different states. By many Russian grammarians this words were discussed and called different (adverbs, adjectives, predicative adverbs or adjectives). Sherba was the first to say that these words form an independent part of speech and it was called the category of state. In English such words as asleep, awake. Ilyish called them stative, Хаймович called them add-link, and some others called them the words of the category of state or predicative. Usually such words are referred to these class: 1) words beginning with “a-“ - which is a prefix (alive, asleep, etc), 2) words beginning with “a-“ - which is not a prefix (afraid, awake, aloof, etc), 3) words consisting of one root which developed from adjectives or adverbs and now they denote a state (ill, glad, sorry, well, etc). The question is rather complicated because different grammarians refer different words of this class. Жигайло, Иванова, Йофик refer to this class only the words beginning with “a-“. There is an opinion that this class is very rich in words expressing a state. (Лейкина refers to this class such words as in, up, down, on, etc. e.g. what’s up?). Different opinion exist: 1) the words of the category of state form an independent part of speech. It may be characterized: semantically, morphologically and semantically. Professor Ilyish said that semantically they denote a state, morphologically they are characterized by the element “a-“, and syntactically they are used as a predicative. (He is asleep – comp.nom.pred.) 2) The words of the type “asleep” do not from an independent part of speech. There are predicative adjectives. This point of view was put forward by professor Бархударов. 3) The words of the type “alive” do not form a grammatical category, they form a lexically category. This is because a state may be expressed by different parts of speech: 1) by noun (it’s time to have dinner), 2) by adj. (he is happy or unhappy) and 3) by participle II (The house is destroyed). This point of view was put forward by professor Вилюман.
№11. The adjective as a part of speech in E&R compare.
Both in English and in Russian the adjective has the same meanings. It expresses the quality or the characteristics of an action. The adj. is characterized in the two languages by the same syntactical functions. They are attribute and the predicative. (An interesting book. A book is interesting). Morphologically the adj-e in ER is different. The Russian adj-e is more changeable. It’s characterized by such morphological categories as the category of gender, number, case and the category of the degrees of comparison. (интересная книга – интересные книги, яркое солнце, интересный собеседник). The adj-e has only one grammatical category – the category of the degrees of comparison. (red-redder-the reddest, good-better-the best). There are 3 degrees of comparison of adj-s. In both languages the positive degree, the comparative and the superlative. The positive degree in English is not marked (red, beautiful) while in Russian it is marked (красивый, красивая, красивое). In English adj-s are monosemantic, they have practically one grammatical meaning, while in Russian the adj-e is polysemantic (хороший has such gram-l m-gs as masculine gender, singular number, nominative case, the positive degree). But the synthetic comparative as красивее, лучшее и сильнее is monosemantic in Russian as well. In Russian most qualitative adjectives have short forms, which are usually used as predicative. The combinability of adjectives is also different in the 2 lang-s. In English we usually speak about lexical and lexical-grammatical combinability. In Russian the grammatical combinability is of great importance (широкое окно, коричневый стол). The English adjective may have its right-hand connection with the prop-word “one” (a good one, a nice one). There are some adj-ves in Russian the syntactical function of which changes the meaning (present, ill, glad; the present situation (not equal) the student is present). Russian adjectives are characterized by the so-called suffixes of subjective appraisal (длинненький, длиннющий, длинноватый). In both languages the adj is divided into two groups: qualitative, relative. The number of relative adj-s is much greater in Russian. Russian relative adj-s are usually rendered into English by a noun in the common case (настольная лампа – a table lamp). Among the relative adj-s in the Russian lan-ge. There is a group of possessive adj-s (Ольгин, мамин, отцов).
№12. Parts of speech in E&R compare.
Both in RE the vocabulary is classified into parts of speech. The words are classified into parts of speech according to three main principals: lexical, morphological and syntactical. ER belong to the Indo-European family of the languages. They have much in common. There are many words which both in languages having the same root morpheme: sister, brother, mother, etc. Practically we find the same parts of speech in both languages. But there is not article in Russian. Words having one and the same meaning may belong to different parts of speech. (тишина, тихий, тихо; to sleep, asleep, sleepy). This shows that the lexical meaning only is not enough to classify the vocabulary into parts of speech. The Russian language is syntactical, while the English is analytical. In Russian the morphological principle is a great importance when we classify words into parts of speech. The English morphology is poor and also the syntactical principle and the combinability of words are of great importance. (a black stone, a stone wall). The parts of speech in both languages are divided into: notional words and form-words order and empty words. Such parts of speech as the noun, the verb, the adjective, the pronoun, and the stative are notional parts of speech. But the conjunction, the preposition, the particle, the article are formal parts of speech. So in both languages there are some words, which forward from one into another parts of speech.
№13. The adverb as a part of speech in E&R compare.
The adverb is a notional part of speech both in ER. Therefore it is characterized lexically, morphologically and syntactically. The lexical meaning. The adverb in both languages denotes some circumstances under which an action takes place. It may also denote some characteristics of an action or of a quality. (He has come late. Он пришел поздно. He is here. Он здесь). These adverbs express some circumstances under which an action takes place. The syntactical functions of the adverb are also the same both in ER. It performs the syntactical function that of an adverbial modifier. (He is here. Он здесь. – the adverbial modifier of place). The adverb in the 2 languages may perform the syntactical functions of different adv. Modifiers such as time, place, manner, cause, purpose and so on. (He will come tomorrow. He speaks fluently.). As to the syntactical relations of the adverb to words of other classes, it is characterized by being connected with the verb, adjective and adverb. (He runs quickly. – verb; He is very clever. – adj; He acts very cleverly. - adverb). The adverb may be also connected with the noun, but this is not a characteristic feature of the adverb. (My friend lives in the room opposite. - noun). As to the morphological characteristics a part of adverbs in both languages has the degrees of comparison. (slowly-more slowly-the most slowly). All the adverbs in both languages are divided into 2 large groups. They are: Circumstantial, Qualitative. They are different both in their lexical meaning, grammatical char-s and word-formation. Circumstantial adverbs are those adverbs, which denote the circumstances under which an action takes place (here, there, late, здесь, теперь, там, тогда). While the qualitative adverbs do not express any external circumstances. They express the characteristics of an action or a quality. (slowly, fluently, badly). Qualitative adverbs are used in the function of an adverbial modifier of manner. (He runs quickly.) The circumstantial adverbs perform the function of adverbial modifiers but manner. (He was there. He will come tomorrow.) The circumstantial adverbs are always connected with the verb, they are unchangeable. The qualitative adverbs may be connected with verb, adj, adverb.
№14. Word-combination in E&R. Their definition and classification.
The word-combination both in ER is characterized by the following features. Practically the word-combination consist of two or more notional words (a brown table). There is an opinion that a word-combination may include two or more any words (a table, a book). Some grammarians thinks that it is a word-combination, while the sentence may be expressed by one word only, because the sentence possesses a complete intonation. The word-combination has practically no intonation. Therefore the word-combination is not a unit of communication. The word-combination has no predication. If we say “a black table” we are not quite sure what tense is meant here. Therefore the w-c has no predicative relations, such as the relation of person, tense, modality. While the main feature of the sentence is that expresses a predication. The w-c are usually build on the basis of one notional word. This notional word is usually called the pivotal word of the main word. The w-c are usually classified in accordance with their pivotal words. We may have such w-c as: 1) Substantial w-c (a red rose, красная роза); 2) adjectival; 3) verbal (to give lessons, to read books); 4) adverbial (quite near, совсем близко). W-cs both in ER may be classified into: - free syntactical comb-s, phraseological units. Free syntactical combinations are such combinations the part of which may be freely replaced (a large table – a large brown table). A phraseological unit is understood as a whole and its parts are not freely replaced (to show the white feather-струсить, танцевать от печки-to begin from the very beginning). A w-c may also classified according to their relations between the words in them. When we may have: attributive combinations (a young man, a brown table), objective (to read a book), adverbial (coming tomorrow, читал стоя/сидя). W-c may be simple and complex. Simplex w-c usually consist of 2 notional words (a red rose, a good student). Complex w-c consist usually of more than 2 words (to travel to a big city, a big red rose). W-c may be subordinative (include pivotal words, or the pivotive words) and coordinative w-c (all the element or words of they are equal – ножи и вилка, a boy and a girl).
№15. Agreement as a mode of syntactical connection in word-combination in ER compare.
Agreement is not often found in MoE, nut it is widely used in MoR. Agreement is used to adjust the form of modified word to the form of the pivotive word. (this room-these rooms, that room-those rooms, I have a book-he has a book). Agreement in MoR is found in such grammatical categories as gender, number, case, and person: 1) Full forms of adjectives in MoR agree with corresponding nouns in gender, number and case (широкий залив, широкая река, широкое озеро – gender; широкий залив – широкого залива – case; широкий залив – широкие заливы – number). In plural no agreement in gender is observed (широкие заливы – no gender). 2) Short forms of adjective do not agree in case. In singular they agree in gender, number (город красив, площадь красива – gender; город красив – города красивы – number). In Plural they agree only in number. Cardinal-numerals in case (пяти домов, пятью домами). Verbs in Future and Present Tenses agree in number and person (ученик пишет, ученики пишут).
№16. Government as a mode of syntactical connection in word-combination in ER compare.
Government is a variety of syntactical connection in accordance with which the use of the oblique case is dependent upon the grammatical meaning of the pivotal word. Government found both in ER. In English government is used to join together 2 nouns: the noun-attribute usually is used in the Possessive Case. (A boy’s book – boys’ books, A day’s holiday, an hour’s absence). Government is used in verbal combinations where the object is expressed by a personal pronoun (Believe me, help him). Prepositional government is more frequently used in MoE (to rely on him, to depend upon him). The verb governments through the preposition. In MoR governing words may be expressed by different parts of speech: 1) by a noun (крыло птицы); 2) by an adjective (склонный к шуткам); 3) by a numeral (двадцать деревьев); 4) by a pronoun (кто-то из братьев); 5) by an Infinitive (поливать улицу); 6) by an adverb (жарко от солнца). A noun or a noun-equivalent usually expresses governed words (извлекать полезное, уважение к старшим). In accordance with the part of speech the governing word belongs to, government in MoR is subdivided into: substantial (осмотр здания – gen. case), adjectival (интересный для зрителя – gen. case with a prep.), adverbial (делать весело, ему приятно), verbal (осматривать здание – accusative case, доверить врагу – dative case).
№17. Adjoining as a mode of syntactical connection in word-combination in ER compare.
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