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We can trace the Audio-Lingual Method rather directly to the “scientific” linguistics of Leonard Bloomfield and his followers. Both behaviouristic psychology and structural linguistics constituted a reaction against a vague and unscientific approach to the questions of human behaviour. Including the acquisition of knowledge.

Every language, as it is viewed here, has its own unique system. This system is comprised of several different levels: phonological, lexical, and syntactical. Each level has its own distinctive features.

Everyday speech is emphasized in the Audio-Lingual Method. The level of complexity of the speech is graded so that beginning students are presented with only simple forms.

The structures of the language are emphasised over all other areas. The syllabus is typically a structural one, with the structure for any particular unit include in the new dialogue. Vocabulary is also contextualized within the dialogue. It is however, limited since the emphasis is placed on the acquisition of the patterns of the language.

The underlying provision of this method include five maxims to guide teachers in applying the result of linguistic research to the preparation of teaching materials and to classroom techniques:

1. Language is speech, not writing.

   1. Emphasis on correct pronunciation from the beginning;

   2. Listening and speaking before reading and writing;

   3. Realistic, situation utterances from start;

   4. Oral mastery first; reading/writing as reinforcers; time lag will depend on sitution.

2. Language is a set of habits.

   1. Based on the assumption that language learning is a habit formation process, pattern drilling and dialogue memorization are extensively used;

3. Teach the language, not about language;

   1. Revolt against the grammar-translation method;

   2. Grammar for the teacher not the learner;

   3. Learn through doing, through active practice

   4. Practice first, rules induced later.

4. A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say:

   1. Emphasis on colloquial wealth of language;

   2. Literary language at much later stage;

   3. Traditional grammar mistrusted: functional styles (occupational, emotive, informative) studied as well as language of attitude.

5. Languages are different:

   1. Universal rules of transformational grammar mistrusted;

   2. Contrastive studies of language encouraged;

   3. Translation accepted when necessary or possible;

   4. Translation a later skill with its own techniques

Techniques:

1. Situational dialogues.

2. Everyday language.

3. Emphasis on speaking – aural – oral active participation.

4. Mimicry-memorisation.

5. Pattern-drilling-choral/individual – Role playing/Dialogue building.

6. Reading and writing to reinforce.

7. Awareness of graphic interference.

8. Rules to be induced from practice.

A-LM enables the students to use the target language communicatively. In order to do this the students are believed to overlearn the target language. To learn to use it automatically without stopping to think. The students achieve this by forming new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language.

The teacher is like an orchestral leader, directing and controlling the language behaviour of the students. He is also responsible for providing his students with a good model of imitation. The students are imitators of the teacher’s model or the tapes he supplies of model speakers. They follow the teacher’s directions and respond as accurately and as rapidly as they can.

New vocabulary and structures are presented through dialogues and texts. These are learnt through imitation and repetition, transposition are based upon the patterns in the dialogue or texts. Students successful responses are positively reinforced. Grammar is induced from the example given; explict grammar rules are not provided. Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogues and texts or presented by the teacher. Students’ reading and writing work is based upon the oral work they did earlier.

Thus the main provisions of this method can be conveniently summarized in the following way:

1. Fluency on four skills with initial emphasis on listening and speaking.

2. Formative function: understanding culture through language.

Pros:

1. Useful language learnt from outset.

2. Good pronunciation achieved through sound discrimination and auditory practice.

3. Materials especially devised on contrastive analysis rather than total structures –presentation based on frequency counts and utility.

4. Reading and writing not neglected but postponed to serve as reinforcement.

5. Highly motivating: learner senses achievement from beginning through practical use and participation.

6. A-LM requires and encourages use of simple and mechanical aids.

Cons:

1. Lack of spontaneity if learning is overmechanical.

2. Reliance on inductive process dangerous.

3. Time lag between oral and written work: dependence on ear alone can lead to insecurity – emotional dislike of aural-oral work and invention of graphic equivalents.

4. A-LM for all students? Average student does best, intelligent student border?

5. Makes considerable demand on the teacher: preparation/drilling/imagination.

6. Is order of presentation natural?

7. Does A-LM produce language illiterates –fluent speakers who cannot read or write?

Possible remedies:

1. Avoid dull drills –contextualize: use variety.

2. Practice should be meaningful and point of drill should be explained to the learner and understood.

3. Time lag must vary according to situation – in some cases oral/written work side be side.

4. Intelligent students should be told that practice makes perfect – hence importance of fluency, clarity and precision.

5. Order of presentation probably logical though analogy with child learner not relevant. Adult is trained to think and use books/dictionaries, but without first learning how to pronounce words he will not learn how to read well.

6. Experience showed that A-LM trainer learner did better is all skills than traditional counterpart except in writing.

Though the emphases at the beginning are strongly on listening and speaking, no devaluation of literature is implied. It appears that mastery of sound system of a language is essential for efficient reading and for appreciation of literature. One of the qualities that makes a work of literature great is the choice of words and phrases, and one of the factors that governs this choice is how they sound. “To read a work of literature without any idea of what it sounded like to the writer is to be as handicapped as the tone-deaf listening to music or the colour-blind looking at a painting”.

Losanov’s Method or Suggestive Method

Few methods have been met with claims ranging from sensational to skeptical: mysterious and costly, a highly questionable new gimmick (one critic has unkindly called it “a package of pseudo-scientific gobbledygook”) and far remote from language teaching styles as language sleep learning, medative relaxation, electrical and sound impulses (E. Davydova).

Suggestopedia as G. Lozanov called his pedagogical application of :The Science of Suggestology” aims at neutralizing learning inibitions and de-suggesting false limitations that cultural norms impose on learning.

The suggestive method or Suggestopedia is a modification of direct method. The originator of this method believes, as does Silent Way's Caleb Gattegno, that language learning can occur at a much faster rate than what ordinarily transpires. In G. Losanov's view the reason for the pupils inefficiency is that they set up psychological barriers that block the way to learning. They fear that they will be unable to perform, that they will be limited in the ability to learn, and finally fail. One result is that the learners' full mental powers are not engaged. According to G. Losanov and his proponents, only five per cent of the learners' mental capacity is used. In order to make better use of the mental reserves the limitations, which they think we have, need to be "desuggested". Suggestopedia, the application of the study of suggestion to pedagogy, has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful and, thereby, to help them overcome the barriers to learning.

The behaviourist principles of G. Losanov's method assume the form of five maxims:

1. Get the learners to utter the same structure repeatedly.

2. Get them to do so correctly.

3. Do this through good grading of structures by arranging them in order of difficulty and by introducing them one at a time if possible.

4. The behaviourist approach is repetition and drilling to the point where the learner automatically makes the correct response.

5. Lessons must be designed so as to prevent the learners from making mistakes.

Behaviourist psychology described all learning (including language acquisition) as a matter of conditioning - as the formation of habits through responses to outside stimuli. Thus one learns a language through mimicry, memorisation and analogy .

Communication takes place on "two planes": on linguistic and psychological one. On the linguistic plane the message is encoded; and on the psychological are factors which influence the linguistic message. On the conscious plane, the learner attends to the language; on the subconscious plane, the music suggests that learning is easy and pleasant; when there is a unity between conscious and subconscious, learning is enhanced .

The class, where this method is used, is different from other classrooms - the students are seated in cushioned armchairs that are arranged in a semicircle facing the front of the room. The teacher is lively, dynamic, confidant, yet sensitive, and speaks only the target language, which suggests that the learners do the same. In the firsts three-hour meeting all learners choose a new name and nationality, after which they are given a fictional autobiography. By means of song, imitation, and play, the learners introduce themselves to each other and assume their new roles. Then over the next two days, the teacher twice presents a long script, each time with a different aim and a different learning set-up; these script performances called "concert sessions", are accompanied by music. In the first of these, the "active concert session", the music is emotional, and the tone of the artistic presentation reflects the character of the music. The learners have the script in two languages arranged in short phrases on opposite sides of the page. After the "concert session" come various kinds of elaboration activities, including group and choral reading of parts of the scripts, singing and playing games as a group and individually. The second day the script is performed again, this time in a "pseudopassive concert session” where a state of wakeful relaxation is artfully stimulated. This reading is accompanied by music of a different tone and mood, generally barouque style. Following that, the learners (in their new identities) are aided again in elaborating the script in various ways. This may include narrating a story or event, or creating an original story, using the language in the script .

Gradually the selection of vocabulary becomes more elaborate. It may include situations from literary works, rustic scenes, and facts from everyday life. Using pantomime to help the students understand, the teacher acts out various occupations, such as pilot, singer, carpenter and artist. The students choose what they want to be.

The teacher reads a dialogue partly in English and partly through pantomime, and outlines the dialogue's story. He also calls his students attention to some of the comments regarding vocabulary and grammar structures.

Next, the teacher asks the students to read the dialogue in a sad way, in an angry way and finally in an amorous way. This is followed by asking questions about the dialogues. Sometimes he asks the students to repeat an English line after him; still other times he addresses a question from the dialogue to an individual student.

So, the principles and techniques of Suggestopedia can be conveniently summarized under the following headings:

1. classroom set-up;

2. positive suggestion;

3. visualization;

4. choosing a new indentity;

5. role-play;

6. concert;

7. primary activation (the students playfully re-read the dialogue);

8. secondary activation (the students engage in various activities designed to help them learn the new material and use it spontaneously).

Activities particularly recommended for this phase include singing, dancing, dramatisations, games. The important thing is that the activities are varied and don’t allow the students to focus on the form of the linguistic message, just the communicative intent.

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