The Linguistic Culture-10 (Education and Science in the USA) (1157936), страница 5
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Usinginnovative technologies, the Mars spacecraft landed on Mars on July 4th, 1997and explored the surface of the planet. The Mars Pathfinder mission was ascientific success, watched by many via the Internet.By the 1980s NASA had created the nation’ space transportation system ofthe future – the Space Shuttle that was a reusable manned spacecraft taking offlike a rocket and landing like an airplane.
After the number of successful missionsof shuttle Columbia, on January 28, 1986, the space shuttle Challenger explodedsoon after liftoff due to the leak of one of two Solid Rocket Boosters. All sevenmembers of the crew including a woman astronaut were killed. On the First ofFebruary 2003 American Space Shuttle Columbia again broke up over Texas as itdescended for a landing at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida following a 16-dayflight. All its seven crewmembers died.
After the Challenger disasters the Shuttleprogram was stopped for over two years.In spite of the tragedies and loss of the human lives NASA continued spacescientific research with the cooperation between Russian and U.S. scientists.The USA and Russia set up quite a number united workgroups for coordination ofcooperated actions in such fields as biology, astrophysics, solar physics andinterplant researches. From 1995 to 1998 the joint programs Mir-Shuttle and MirNASA were carried on.
The USA-Russian Space cooperation was supervised byjoint American-Russian workgroups, including the representatives of differentgovernmental bodies, universities and institutions of the USA and Russia.The ILS (International Launch Services) joint venture was formed in 1995 andbecame another example of cooperation between the two countries One of thenotable events in bilateral space work was the establishment of the Sea LaunchInternational consortium, of which 40% was owned by Boeing Commercial SpaceCo.
and 25 % by Russian Energiya Rocket Space Corp. The achieved experiencepaved the way for the creation of another International project ISS with theparticipation of 11 countries. The permanent work of ISS began in November2000. In May 2000 the first launch of the U.S. rocket-carrier Atlas 111, equippedwith a Russian RD-180 engines was conducted.John Mather and George Smoot’s Nobel Prize awards of 2006 marked theinception of cosmology as a precise science and manifested the work of morethan 1,000 researchers, engineers and other participants for the experimentalmeasurements that revealed the blackbody form of the microwave backgroundradiation measured by satellite launched by NASA in 1989.1. Answer the questions.1.
What do you know about NAS activity? What are the similar and differentfeatures in the work of the US National Academy of sciences and the Russian one?2. Which non-profit scientific institutions do you know in the USA? What is “ThinkTanks”?3. Which role did the World Wars play in the development of American science?4. What part did the US universities occupy in the development of research?5. Which names of American Nobel prize winners do you know? Do you know anyRussians among them?6. What do you know about NASA activities?7. Tell about the space age in the USA and Russia. Give the examples of spacecooperation of our two countries.2.
Render the texts in English:Современная сеть научных организаций в США включает государственныеведомственные лаборатории, федерально финансируемые исследовательские центры,частные промышленные фирмы и некоммерческие (бесприбыльные) организации. Этообусловлено тем, что федеральное правительство тратит огромные средства на науку.Оно - ocновной источник финансированияфундаментальных исследований и самыйкрупный заказчик военных программ.Б). Бесприбыльные исследовательские организации.Бесприбыльные исследовательские организации не ставят своей целью получениекоммерческой прибыли. Это освобождает их от федеральных налогов и делает ихотносительно независимыми. Бесприбыльными исследовательскими организациямиявляются исследовательские отделы университетов, федерально финансируемыеисследовательскиецентры,научно-техническиеобщества,музеи,частныеблаготворительные фонды.
Сюда же относятся независимые исследовательскиеинституты, профессиональные общества и Академия наук.Наибольший объем исследований среди бесприбыльных организаций выполняютнезависимые исследовательские институты. Они не входят в состав фирм и университетови различны по своим размерам и структуре. Это, как правило, специализированныеисследовательские организации. Старейшими бесприбыльными организациями являютсяМеллоновский, Беттелевский и Рокфеллеровский фонды. Особое место в этой группебесприбыльныхфедеральныхисследовательскихцентровзанимает«РЭНДкорпорейшен». Это специализированный научный центр, который дает независимуюэкспертную оценку качества и способов исполнения различных научно-исследовательскихпроектов.
Эта корпорация проводит предварительные исследования, предшествующиевыполнению проекта, но не принимает практического участия в их осуществлении, хотяконсультирует исполнителей в ходе выполнения проекта. Ее часто называют «мозговымцентром», или «мыслительным резервуаром».Read and translate the following words and word combination:To spawn - (создавать, зарождаться, размножаться), an entrepreneur предприниматель, владелец предприятия ,venture capital –капитал,вложенный в предприятие, synergy - явление в деловой практике, когдаобщий результат превышает сумму отдельных эффектов, to endow капитал, вкладываемый в предприятие, to impedе- обеспечивать капиталом,Insulator - диэлектрик, непроводник, flagship - флагман.Geographically, the Silicon Valley is the northern part of the Santa Clara County,an area stretching from the south end of the San Francisco to San Jose.The name Silicon Valley was coined in 1971 by Don C.
Hoefler, editor of theMicroelectronics News, when he used this term in his magazine as the title for aseries of articles about semiconductor industry in Santa Clara County. SiliconValley saw the development of the integrated circuit, the microprocessor, thepersonal computer and has spawned a lot of high-tech products as pocketcalculators, cordless telephones, lasers or digital watches. Looking at our hightech society in which the PC has become indispensable-both in businesses and athome, the crucial role of Silicon Valley as the birthplace of the microelectronicsand then the PC revolution has become even more evident.Silicon Valley is also seen as a place where many entrepreneurs backed byventure capital have made the American Dream come true as “OvernightMillionaires”.
This makes Silicon Valley a philosophy saying that everything whichseems impossible is feasible and that improvements in the US society can takeplace. The mayor of San Jose Thomas Emery called it the “economic and culturalfrontier where successful entrepreneurship and venture capitalism, innovativework rules and open management styles provide the background for the mostprofound inquiry ever into the nature of intelligence” which might, together with“bioengineering and artificially intelligent software”, affect our evolution.
Therevolutionary inventions and developments, which have been made in this«Valley», affect the daily life and it is hard to imagine high-tech society withoutthem.The story of the “Silicon Valley” starts with Stanford University, which hasbeen of fundamental importance in the rise of the electronics industry in SantaClara County. In 1887, Leland Stanford, a wealthy railroad magnate who owned alarge part of the Pacific Railroad, decided to built a university and dedicate it tothe memory of his son who died very young.
The university was opened in 1891and became later one of the world’s greatest academic institutions.Frederick Terman who is known today as a godfather of the Silicon Valleychanged the position of this university fundamentally. After graduation fromStanford University he decided to go east to the Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology (MIT), but after receiving his doctorate in 1924 he turned to Palo Altoand became the head of the engineering department in 1937.Terman establishedstrong cooperation between Stanford and the surrounding electronics industry tostop the brain drain among the university graduates, as they could not find goodjobs in California at that time.Thanks to him many companies endowed theuniversity with gifts, which Terman used to hire qualified professors from all overthe USA. Thus, he created a mechanism, which increased the settlement of theelectronics industry.During World War II, after the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor in 1942, agreat deal of the US military forces and of the military production was moved toCalifornia.
Within a few years, California became a booming industrial state andthe military center of the USA. After World War II, the Stanford ResearchInstitute (SRI) was founded to provide the industry with more skilled specialistsand increase the number of companies in Santa Clara County. More firms among them Hewlett-Packard as one of the first residents - settled theirdepartments in this park.Military funding for high-tech products was responsible for the rapid growth ofSilicon Valley.
A lot of firms (Such firms as FMC, GTE, Varian Associates,Westinghouse, and finally Lockheed) opened their R&D departments in theStanford Research Park and started Lockheed Missiles and Space Company(LMSC). The invention of the microprocessor in the early 1970s represented thenext step towards the modern way of computing, providing the basis for thesubsequent personal computer revolution.I’ll just call the companies Intel Corporation (Integrated Electronics),that designedthe first microprocessor, IBM (International Business Machines) that has becomethe world’s leading company in the big mainframe computers since the 1950s.,The Apple Company, the Sun workstation, and Microsoft Corporation..
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