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8. The way in which a doctor behaves towards a patient, especially a patient who is in bed.

9. An effect produced by a substance to which a person has an allergy, such as sneezing or a skin rash.

10. A trial carried out in a medical laboratory on a person or on tissue from a person.

11. A tumour which is cancerous and can grow again or spread into other parts of the body, even if removed surgically.

12. A doctor who provides first-line medical care for all types of illness to people who live locally, refers them to hospital if necessary and encourages health promotion.

13. The rhythm of daily activities and bodily processes such as eating, defecating or sleeping, frequently controlled by hormones, which repeats every twenty-four hours.

14. The set of organs such as the stomach, liver and pancreas which are associated with the digestion of food.

15. A diet that provides all the nutrients needed in the correct proportions.

Exercise 6. Fighting Bacteria.

Divide into two groups. Each group should read either Text A or Text B about two unusual methods of fighting bacteria. Then in pairs discuss your text with the partner. Try not to miss any details.

Text A. Tea Aids Oral Health

By Sarah Graham

A spot of tea may offer more than just a pleasant way to pass the afternoon. Research findings presented this week at the 103rd General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology in Washington, D.C. suggests that it can help fight bad breath and may boost the powers of toothpaste.

Christine Wu and Min Zhu of the University of Illinois at Chicago College of Dentistry isolated chemical components of tea leaves known as polyphenols and tested them against three species of bacteria known to cause bad breath. The researchers found that the compounds, specifically catechins and theaflavins, inhibited growth of the oral bacteria over a 48-hour incubation period. What is more, lower concentrations of the chemicals interfered with the enzyme that catalyzes the production of hydrogen sulfide, which has the notorious smell of rotten eggs, and reduced its production by 30 percent. The compounds studied by the scientists are present in both green tea and black tea, although they are more abundant in the latter.

In a second study, researchers reported that green tea may provide additional benefits. Milton Schiffenbauer of Pace University and his colleagues tested tea's ability to fight bacteria that cause infections such as strep throat and dental caries. They found that green tea extracts and polyphenols--particularly those from caffeinated beverages--inhibited bacterial growth. Adding these agents to toothpaste and mouthwash, he notes, may make them more effective at combating microbial agents. (From Scientific American Online, May 21, 2003)

Text B. Scientists Explain Why Vegetable Recipes Skimp on Spices

By Kate Wong

Several years ago, a team of researchers from Cornell University proposed that the spices used in traditional meat-based cuisines originally served not as flavor, but to stave off bacteria and fungi. Now new research is providing further food for thought: findings reported in the June issue of Evolution and Human Behavior explain why vegetable-based dishes tend to lack such spiciness.

Plants, it turns out, don't require so much protection against microorganisms as meats because they have their own natural chemical and physical defenses, which continue to function after cooking. Cornell neurobiologist Paul W. Sherman and undergraduate Geoffrey Hash thus predicted that if spices first served as antimicrobials, especially in warmer climates, vegetable recipes in the same countries surveyed for the meat research should feature fewer spices. Subsequent investigation bore this out. Analyzing 2,129 traditional vegetable recipes from 36 different countries, the team found that spice usage was far lower than that found in meat-based dishes from the same cultures. Indeed, of the 41 spices considered, 38 appear more frequently in meat recipes; the three that don't fit this pattern - sesame, caraway and sweet pepper - offer little protection anyway.

"Humans have always been in a co-evolutionary race with parasites and pathogens in foods, and our cookbooks are the written record of that race," Sherman asserts. "We haven't had to 'run' as hard when we ate vegetables. We haven't had to use extra pharmaceuticals to make vegetables safe for consumption." (From Scientific American Online, July 11, 2001)

Exercise 7. Speak about bacteria and their role on our planet. Summarize all facts which have been discussed in this unit.

Unit 5. Domestic and Domesticated Animals

A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!

William Shakespeare

The Tragedy of King Richard the Third

I have known the horse in war and in peace, and there is no place where a horse is comfortable. The horse has too many caprices, and he is too much given to initiative. He invents too many ideas. No, I don’t want anything to do with a horse.

Mark Twain

Exercise 1. What do you know about domestication of animals?

1. What domestic animals do you know? What wild animals do they come from?

2. What was the first domesticated animal? Why?

3. What purposes were domesticated animals used for?

4. How does the process of domestication take place?

Exercise 2. Read the following two texts (Text A and Text B) about domestication of dogs and goats to check your answers in Exercise 1.

Text A. The Origin of Dogs

Where did our best friend originate? Researchers are looking to DNA to dig up answers about where, when and why pooches became popular

By Katherine Harmon

From Chihuahua to Great Danes, all domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) seem to be descended from the Eurasian gray wolf (Canis lupis). But what we still don't know is exactly when and where our best friends transformed from predators into partners. And such knowledge might help solve the long-disputed question of exactly why dogs were the first animal to be domesticated.

The dog genome was first decoded in 2005—and even before that researchers had been using genetic tools to track Fido's first home. Early research pointed toward east Asia as the locus of first taming after the discovery of high genetic diversity and other key markers in dog populations from various villages there. Some investigators, however, have since pointed out that the genetic search sampled more east Asian village dogs, neglecting similar pups roaming other villages around the globe. That's where the Village Dog Genetic Diversity Project at Cornell University comes in. Starting with a recent genetic analysis of dogs in African villages, the Cornell group hopes ultimately to create a detailed DNA-based map of canine ancestry worldwide, which in turn should provide a new understanding of the ancient humans who took them in.

One part of that new insight appeared earlier this month in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), in a study that calls into question the assumption of dogs' east Asian origin. A team led by Adam Boyko, a researcher at Cornell's Carlos D. Bustamante Lab, sampled 318 village dogs in Africa (as well as hundreds of dogs from North America and Europe for comparison) and discovered that the high genetic diversity of canines there resembles that found in east Asia. "We found almost without exception they're descended from different ancestral populations," Boyko says of the village dogs sampled in Africa. That means they may have been there just as long as others had been in east Asia.

Researchers have also yet to figure out when people first began raising dogs. The going theory is that dogs were domesticated somewhere between 15,000 and 40,000 years ago. But, Boyko explains, genetic testing has not gone deep enough to come up with a more refined date. To try to track down some more clues, field crews have fanned out around the globe this summer to test village dogs in Vietnam, New Guinea, Malaysia and other locations in Eurasia in order to get more data.

Of course, scrappy village dogs aren't often the focus of heartfelt conservation efforts, and some even face active elimination programs. But these pups also have challenges from newly arrived European-descent dogs, which threaten to make a splash in the regional gene pool. "It is unclear the degree to which older populations will be able to maintain their genetic identity and persist in the face of modernity," Boyko and his co-authors wrote in the PNAS paper. So time is of the essence in digging up a solid answer about doggie descent.

Looking back into the pooch family tree will help researchers learn more not only about dogs, but about ancient people, as well. A genetic map of dog domestication could reveal important information about human migration and trade routes. "We may be able to turn dogs into a genetic marker for what human populations were doing," Boyko says. He adds that he and his colleagues also plan to "look for which regions of the genome went under selection earliest," and from that "we'll also learn what traits were selected for at that time." That knowledge, along with a little help from archaeologists, may be able to uncover sniff out just why the dog was so special and became most likely the first domesticated species. (From Scientific American Online, August 20, 2009)

Text B. Gene Study Suggests Goats Got Around Through Early Human Commerce

At the dawn of human history, long migrations were not for weaklings. Early travelers, however, could count on a sturdy, reliable and self-propelling source of food during their trips, a French study has just revealed. Researchers from Joseph Fourier University in Grenoble and the Muse National d’Histoire Naturelle in Paris, in collaboration with scientists from the University of Geneva in Switzerland, discovered that our ancestors likely used goats as "walking larders" some 10,000 years ago. Their findings, which are published on today's issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), come from an analysis of DNA extracted from goat mitochondria -small organelles that work as cellular power plants.

The short string of DNA contained in the mitochondria (mDNA) - which accounts for only a small fraction of the total cellular DNA - accumulates mutations at a relatively regular rate and so researchers can use variations in its genes to measure evolutionary changes. The more differences two individuals or species show in the nucleotide composition of their mDNA, the more distantly related they are. Moreover, because mitochondria are only inherited from mothers, the DNA is not subject to the gene shuffling that affects the rest of the genome after fertilization. Therefore mDNA points researchers to only one or a few common female ancestors from which different populations originated.

For their studies, Gordon Luikart from Grenoble University and his colleagues collected mDNA from more than 400 wild and domesticated goats in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Middle East, representing 88 breeds distributed across the Old World. Their results suggest that all of the world's 700 million domestic goats originated from only three ancestors, which were domesticated at different times in different places during prehistory. The first goats were probably domesticated about 10,000 year ago at the dawn of the Neolithic in a region of the Middle East known as the Fertile Crescent.

Intriguingly, the genetic analysis showed that, unlike other domestic animals such as cattle, sheep and pigs, today's descendants of the first domesticated goats are rather evenly distributed in all continents of the Old World. This pattern suggests that goats followed humans in their early migrations. "Goats have been a highly mobile species, probably as small and portable units of human trade throughout history," researchers David MacHugh and Daniel G. Bradley note in a commentary to the PNAS paper.

Goats can live on little food in harsh climates and still provide a major source of meat, skin and fibers for millions of people in the developing world. Strange as it might seem, we should rightfully include those skinny animals in the short list of man's best friends. (From Scientific American Online, May 8, 2001)

Exercise 3. Do you agree with the following statements? Why? Why not? Explain your answer.

1. Studies of animal domestication may shed light on human origin, development and migrations.

2. Scientists know exactly when and where different wild animals were domesticated.

3. Dogs were first domesticated in Africa.

4. Genetic material from numerous breeds and populations of animals is used for investigation.

5. Mitochondrial DNA is used to determine the origin of species.

6. Goats were extremely useful for ancient people.

7. Dogs and goats were domesticated in the same region.

8. All modern goats originate from the same common ancestor.

Exercise 4. Divide into two groups. Each group should read either Text A or Text B on domestication of wild horses. In pairs, share your information with your partner and discuss both texts to combine all the details, so you could answer the questions in Exercise 5.

Text A. DNA Hints at Origins of Domestic Horses

By Sarah Graham

The last sighting of a wild horse population occurred in 1969 in Mongolia. A far more common sight is a domestic horse, whether on a farm or a racetrack. Now scientists have shed new light on how these magnificent beasts came to be controlled by humans. According to a report published online this week by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, modern horses were domesticated from several distinct ancestral populations. And because horse domestication may have played a key role in the spread of some European languages, the findings could further the study of language evolution.

To track the trail of domestic horses, Thomas Jansen of Biopsytec Analytik in Rheinbach, Germany, and his colleagues sequenced DNA from 318 horses representing 25 different breeds. Specifically, the team analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is inherited from the mother, and compared the recent samples to previously published DNA data from 334 other animals. The researchers identified 17 distinct types of mtDNA and calculated that at least 77 different wild mares must have been domesticated in order to account for today's domestic horses. Just how these animals were domesticated remains unclear, however. Because of the necessary diversity of the mares, the team posits that several separate and geographically diverse populations participated in the process. One theory holds that domestication occurred independently at a number of locales. Alternatively, the procedure may have slowly spread from a single starting point. In that case, the authors write, "the knowledge and the initially domesticated horses themselves would have spread, with local mares incorporated en route, forming our regional mtDNA clusters." (From Scientific American Online, July 16, 2002)

Text B. Modern Horses Have Many Origins

By Julia Karow

About 6000 years ago, somewhere in the Eurasian grassland steppe, man started to capture and tame wild horses--at least that's what remains from archaeological sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, tell scientists. Initially, people did not only use horses for transport, but also for food; at the time, dogs, cows, sheep and goats had already lived with humans for several thousand years. Now genetic evidence from modern and ancient horses, published in today's Science, completes the picture: the taming of horses did not occur in only one place, but in several, geographically distant locations.

Researchers from Sweden and the U.S. analyzed parts of the mitochondrial DNA of 191 domestic horses from ten different breeds, including the Icelandic Pony, the Arabian horse and the (American) Standardbred. They also included DNA sequences from 12,000 to 28,000-year-old horse bones found in Alaska and from 1,000 to 2,000-year-old horse remains from Northern Europe in the comparison. Mothers alone pass on mitochondria to their offspring, which is why the data represents only the maternal line. But the DNA samples from the modern horses differed so much from each other that they probably originated from several different groups of domesticated horses. And the genetic variation within each breed indicates that probably more female horses and only a few studs were used for breeding--a practice that continues today.

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