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Colloid Interf. Sci. 207 150–158[63] Giannuzzi L A, Stevie F A 2005 Introduction to focused ion beams: introduction, theory, techniques and practice (Springer)[64] Morgan J, Notte J, Hill R, Ward B 2006 An introduction to the helium ionmicroscope Microscopy Today 14 24–31CHAPTER 8Surface topographycharacterization8.1 Introduction to surface topography characterizationThe characterization of surface topography is a complicated branch ofmetrology with a huge range of parameters available. Surface form characterization has been covered elsewhere [1] and this book concentrates onsurface texture characterization.
The proliferation of surface texture characterization parameters has been referred to as ‘parameter rash’ [2] – at anyone time there can be over one hundred parameters to choose from. However,due to recent activities, there will soon be a coherent international standardsinfrastructure to support surface texture characterization.
Profile characterization has been standardized for some time now and draft areal standardsare now available.The first important work on areal surface texture was carried out bya European project led by Ken Stout from the University of Birmingham [3].This project ended with the publication of the Blue Book [4] and the definition of the so-called ‘Birmingham-14’ parameters. Following this projectISO started standardization work on areal surface texture. However, ISOexperts rapidly realised that further research work was needed to determinethe stability of areal parameters and their correlation with the functionalcriteria used by industry.
A further project (SURFSTAND) was carried outbetween 1998 and 2001, by a consortium of universities and industrialpartners, led by Liam Blunt of the University of Huddersfield. SURFSTANDended with the publication of the Green Book [5] and generated the basicdocuments for forthcoming specification standards.This chapter will summarize the surface texture characterizationmethods that are now either fully standardized or are at the draft stage. Thereare many other parameters (and filtering methods) that can be found on lessrecent instrumentation and in use in many industries, but this book has onlyconsidered the ISO standard methods as these are the most likely to be theFundamental Principles of Engineering NanometrologyCopyright Ó 2010 by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.CONTENTSIntroduction to surfacetopographycharacterizationSurface profilecharacterizationAreal surface texturecharacterizationFractal methodsComparison of profileand arealcharacterizationReferences211212C H A P T ER 8 : Surface topography characterizationmethods used in the near future.
Further methods for surface characterization, including those from the fields of roundness measurement, andfrequency and waveform analysis can be found elsewhere [6,7].Parameters for areal surface texture are relatively new and there has beenlimited research on their use. For this reason some of the areal parameters arejust presented in this book as stated in the ISO specification standards withlittle or no description of their uses. It is also expected that most users ofsurface texture parameters will have access to software packages that can beused to calculate parameters and will not attempt to code the parametersfrom scratch. However, software packages should be checked for correctnesswhere possible using software measurement standards (see section 6.13).8.2 Surface profile characterizationSurface profile measurement was described in section 6.4.
The surface profilecharacterization methods that have been standardized by ISO are presentedhere. Section 8.4 presents some of the fractal methods that are available.There are three types of profile that are defined in ISO specification standards[8,9]. Firstly, the traced profile is defined as the trace of the centre of a stylustip that has an ideal geometrical form (conical, with spherical tip) andnominal tracing force, as it traverses the surface. Secondly, the referencesurface is the trace that the probe would report as it is moved along a perfectlysmooth and flat work piece. The reference profile arises from the movementcaused by an imperfect datum guideway.
If the datum were perfectly flat andstraight, the reference profile would not affect the total profile. Lastly, thetotal profile is the (digital) form of the profile reported by a real instrument,combining the traced profile and the reference profile. Note that in someinstrument systems it is not practicable to ‘correct’ for the error introducedby datum imperfections and the total profile is the only available informationconcerning the traced profile.The above types of profile are primarily based on stylus instruments.Indeed, stylus instruments are the only instruments that are covered by ISOstandards at the time of writing (see section 8.2.10).
However, many opticalinstruments allow a profile either to be measured directly (scanned) orextracted in software from an areal map. In this case the profile definitionsneed to be interpreted in an appropriate manner (for example, in the case ofa coherence scanning interferometer, see section 6.7.3.4, the reference profilewill be part of the reference mirror surface).Two more definitions are required before we can move onto filtering andsurface texture parameters:Surface profile characterization8.2.1 Evaluation lengthThe evaluation length is the total length along the surface (x axis) used for theassessment of the profile under evaluation. It is normal practice to evaluateroughness and waviness profiles (see sections 8.2.3.2 and 8.2.3.3) overseveral successive sampling lengths, the sum of which gives the evaluationlength.
For the primary profile the evaluation length is equal to the samplinglength. ISO 4287 [9] advocates the use of five sampling lengths as the defaultfor roughness evaluation and if another number is used the assessmentparameter (see section 8.2.5) will have that number included in its symbol,for example Ra6. No default is specified for waviness. With a few exceptions,parameters should be evaluated in each successive sampling length and theresulting values averaged over all the sampling lengths in the evaluationlength. Some parameters are assessed over the entire evaluation length. Toallow for acceleration at the start of a measurement and deceleration at theend of a measurement (when using a stylus instrument), the instrumenttraverse length is normally rather longer than the evaluation length.8.2.2 Total traverse lengthThe total traverse length is the total length of surface traversed in makinga measurement.
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