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Inthis case a single frequency should be measured.2.9.6 Modern and future laser frequency standardsAs mentioned is section 2.3, the current definition of length is based ona fixed speed of light, and there are a number of recipes to make an opticalwavelength/frequency standard. These optical standards are linked to thetime standard (which is a microwave standard) via a series of complicatedcomparisons to determine an absolute frequency and an uncertainty.Recently a so-called ‘frequency comb’ [38] has been developed thatgenerates a series of equally spaced (the ‘comb’) frequencies by linkinga nanosecond pulsed laser to an atomic clock.
This makes a direct comparison possible of optical frequencies to the time standard without the need foran intermediate (still primary) standard such as the iodine-stabilized laser.The development of frequency combs is more important as, along withthe He-Ne-based gas lasers, ranges of solid-state lasers and diode lasers havebecome available as frequency-stabilized light sources. These can havewavelengths that are very different from the common He-Ne wavelengths(for example, the red 633 nm wavelength), and cannot be measured usinga beat measurement with a He-Ne laser, because the beat frequency is toohigh to be measured directly.
Frequency combs will also enable the development of other stabilized laser systems, such as stabilized diode lasers.Diode lasers can have a far wider wavelength range than He-Ne gas lasers andcan, for example, be used in the swept-frequency absolute distance interferometry as described in section 5.2.7.2.10 References[1] Flack D R, Hannaford J 2005 Fundamental good practice in dimensionalmetrology NPL Good practice guide No. 80 (National Physical Laboratory)3132C H A P T ER 2 : Some basics of measurement[2] 2006 Le Système International d’Unités (Bureau International des Poids etMesures: Paris) 8th edition[3] Howarth P, Redgrave F 2004 Metrology in short (EUROMET) 2ndedition, www.euromet.org/docs/pubs/docs/Metrology_in_short_2nd_edition_may_2004.pdf[4] Hume K J 1980 A history of engineering metrology (Mechanical EngineeringPublications Ltd)[5] Stout K J 1998 From Cubit to nanometre: a history of precision measurement (Prenton Press: London)[6] Barrell H 1962 The metre Contemp.
Phys. 3 415–435[7] Petley B W 1983 The new definition of the metre Nature 303 373–376[8] Felder R 2005 Practical realization of the definition of the metre, includingrecommended radiations of other optical frequency standards (2003)Metrologia 42 323–325[9] Petley B W 1985 The fundamental physical constants and the frontiers ofmeasurement (Adam Hilger Ltd: Bristol)[10] Davis R S 1989 The stability of the SI unit of mass as determined fromelectrical measurements Metrologia 26 75–76[11] Kibble B P, Robinson I A 2003 Replacing the kilogram Meas.
Sci. Technol. 141243–1248[12] Mills I M, Mohr P J, Quinn T J, Taylor B M, Williams E R 2005Redefinition of the kilogram: a decision whose time has come Metrologia42 71–80[13] Eisenberger A, Jeckelmann B, Richard P 2003 Tracing Plank’s constant to thekilogram by electromechanical methods Metrologia 40 356–365[14] Becker P 2001 History and progress in the determination of the Avogadroconstant Rep. Prog.
Phys. 64 1945–2008[15] Sutherland O, Appolloni M, O’Neil S, Gonzalez del Amo J, Hughes B 2008Advances with the ESA propulsion laboratory mN thrust balance 5th Int.Space Propulsion Conf., Crete, Greece, May[16] Zhoa Y -P, Wang L S, Yu T X 2003 Mechanics of adhesion in MEMS a review J.
Adhesion Sci. Technol. 17 519–546[17] 1998 The guide to the measurement of force (The Institute of Measurementand Control: London)[18] Weiler W 1984 Realization of forces at the national institutes of metrology(Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanhalt)[19] Evans J C, Taylerson C O 1986 Measurement of angle in engineering(National Physical Laboratory) 3rd edition[20] Slocum A H 1992 Precision machine design (Society of ManufacturingEngineers: USA)[21] ISO VIM: 2004 International vocabulary of basic and general terms inmetrology (International Organization for Standardization)References[22] ISO 17025: 2005 Competence of testing and calibration laboratories(International Organization for Standardization)[23] Rae A I M 2007 Quantum mechanics (Chapman & Hall) 5th edition[24] Hecht E 2003 Optics (Pearson Education) 4th edition[25] Dotson C 2006 Fundamentals of dimensional metrology (Delmar Learning)5th edition[26] Bell S A 2001 A beginner’s guide to uncertainty in measurement NPL goodpractice guide No.
11. (National Physical Laboratory)[27] BIPM, IEC, IFCC, ISO, IUPAP, OIML 1995 Guide to the expression ofuncertainty in measurement 2nd edition[28] Bich W, Cox M G, Harris P M 2006 Evolution of the ‘‘Guide to theexpression of uncertainty in measurement’’ Metrologia 43 S161–S166[29] BIPM, IEC, IFCC, ISO, IUPAP, OIML 2008 Evaluation of measurement data Supplement 1 to the ‘‘Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement’’ Propagation of distributions using Monte Carlo methods JCGM 101[30] Svelto O 2005 The principles of lasers (Springer) 4th edition[31] Brillett A, Cérez P 1981 Laser frequency stabilisation by saturated absorptionJ. de Phys. (France) 42(C-8) 73–82[32] Darnedde H, Rowley W R C, Bertinetto F, Millerioux Y, Haitjema H, Wetzels S,Pirée H, Prieto E, Mar Pérez M, Vaucher B, Chartier A, Chartier J-M 1999International comparisons of He-Ne lasers stabilized with 127I2 at l ¼ 633 nm(July 1993 to September 1995).
Part IV: Comparison of Western Europeanlasers at l ¼ 633 nm Metrologia 36 199–206[33] Umeda N, Tsujiki M, Takasaki H 1980 StabilisedZeeman laser Appl. Opt. 19 442–4503He-20Ne transverse[34] Fellman T, Junger P, Stahlberg B 1987 Stabilisation of a green He-Ne laserAppl. Opt. 26 2705–2706[35] Baer T, Kowalski F V, Hall J L 1980 Frequency stabilisation of a 0.633 mmHe-Ne longitudinal Zeeman laser Appl. Opt. 19 3173–3177[36] Rowley W R C 1990 The performance of a longitudinal Zeeman-stabilisedHe-Ne laser (633 nm) with thermal modulation and control Meas. Sci.Technol.
1 348–351[37] Tomlinson W J, Fork R L 1968 Properties of gaseous optical masers in weakaxial magnetic fields Phys. Rev. 164 480–483[38] Jones D, Diddams S, Ranka J, Stentz A, Windeler R, Hall J L, Cundiff S T2000 Carrier envelope phase control of femtosecond mode-locked lasers anddirect optical frequency synthesis Science 288 635–63933This page intentionally left blankCHAPTER 3Precision measurementinstrumentation – somedesign principlesThe design, development and use of precision measurement instrumentation1 is a highly specialized field that combines precision engineering withmetrology.
Although precision instrumentation has been around for manydecades (see [1] for a historical overview), the measurements that are requiredto support MNT have forced designers and metrologists to learn a number ofnew skills. One major difference between conventional scale instrumentation and that used to measure MNT structures and devices is the effect thatthe measuring instrument has on the measurement process. For example,when measuring surface topography with a stylus instrument (see section6.6.1), one should be aware of the possible distortion of the topographycaused by the finite shape of the stylus. In essence, the business end of theinstrument can have a size that is comparable to the structure beingmeasured.
This ‘probe–measurand’ interaction will be discussed throughoutthis book where necessary for each type of instrument. This chapter willpresent the basic principles of precision instrumentation so that, as thereader is presented with the various instruments in the following chapters, heor she will be armed with the appropriate knowledge to understand the basicoperating principles.Precision instrument design involves scientific disciplines such asmechanics, materials, optics, electronics, control, thermo-mechanics, dynamicsand software engineering.
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