диссертация (Трансформация культурной идентичности иранской женщины), страница 9

Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age. Stanford University Press,1991. p. 70.134Morrow D.F., Messinger L. Sexual Orientation and Gender Expression in Social Work Practice: Working withGay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender People. Columbia University Press, 2006. p.8135Gender identity.

Encyclopedia of Children's Health. —Mode of access: http://www.healthofchildren.com/GH/Gender-Identity.html (accessed: 15.05.2018)13337Liberal feminism in its classic formulation began in 18th century in MaryWollstonecraft's "A Vindication of the Rights of Women, and John Staurt Mill's"The Subjection of Women", and in 19th century by Women's suffragemovements"136. Liberal feminism primarily challenged for gender equality. Theysought to achieve social and legal equality between women and men. Itemphasized that each individual woman has power and capability to alter thesociety's discriminatory practices that subordinated women; therefore, theyclaimed equal social and educational opportunities. Staurt Mill writes, "womenshould be recognized as fully rational and worthy of the same civil liberties andeconomic opportunities as men"137.Liberal feminists endeavored to provide women a gender identity free fromfalse definitions of women as physically and intellectually less capable comparedto men, rather they attempted to prove female gender as rational human beingsequal to men.For Mary Wollstonecraft, "Women's nature was rational and gender-neutral.From this point of view, femininity can be viewed as an artificial conditionwhich subordinates women within a patriarchal culture"138.

In her major book,she firmly demands for women's right to be educated. "Strengthen the female mindby enlarging it, and there will be an end to blind obedience"139. She regardededucation as a way to save women from the darkness. While consenting the day'scurrent belief at position of women as householders, she encouraged that educatedand financially independent women enter society "to struggle for herself instead ofeating the bitter bread of dependence"140.Radical Feminism136Tong R. Feminist Thought.

Avalon Publishing, 2013. p.1.Ibid. p. 17.138Powell J.L. Feminism. New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2012. p.1.139Wollstonecraft M. A Vindication of the Rights of Women. Courier Corporation, 1792. p.24.140Ibid. p. 96.13738While liberal feminists concentrated on women as individual rationalbeings, radical feminists categorized women as a class dominated by the otherclass called man.Radical Feminism "arose out of the consciousness-raising movements of the1960s, where women, for the first time, theorized their second class status withinthe male dominated social world"141. They called for radical changes in society tocombat the oppressive social roles and institutions which are structured based onpatriarchy and male supremacy.

The aim was not social equality; rather it was toundermine patriarchy and traditional gender roles constructed by it. Women havebeen convinced to be secondary and dependent to men. "We cannot speak ofliberating ourselves until we free ourselves from this myth and accept ourselves asprimary"142. While rejecting gender roles, they believed in a gender identitycommon among all women, who shared common oppressive experiences.Radical feminists are divided to two groups of libertarian and culturalfeminists. Radical libertarian feminism hold the idea that maternity andreproductive process hinders women's improvement. Thus, they welcome anyreproductive technology, believing that women are not interested in child giving.Firestone, a known figure of this trend, challenges against distinctions based on"genital differences".

She writes, "It has become necessary to free humanity fromthe tyranny of its biology"143.Mackinonn, another known radical feminist, mainly fights against women'ssexual oppression in sexual harassment and pornography. She views pornographyas reinforcement of patriarchs system that objectifies women to male subjects.Subservient women turn to be body parts and as a result, lesser positions areascribed to them. Mackinonn follows Kant's belief in monogamous and hiscondemnation of any sexual interaction outside marriage, which is seen as141Rich. J. Modern Feminist Theory: An Introduction (Philosophy Insights).

Humanities-EBooks, 2007. p. 18.Koedt A., Levine E., Rapone A. Radical Feminism. Quadrangle Books; The New York Times Book Company,1973. p. 319.143Firestone Sh. The Dialectic of Sex. London: Women's press, 1972. p.183.14239objectification. Pornography dehumanizes women through making them objects tobe used and possessed by consumers"144. She states that with pornography menpossess women and silence them, therefore pornography "institutionalizes thesexuality of male supremacy"145.While liberal radical feminists view women's reproductive capabilitiesoppressive, cultural radical feminism celebrates female essence as women's power.Idealizing female nature, they "effort to revalidate undervalued femaleattributes"146. Emphasizing on women's biologically inherited attributes such asbeing more kind, nurturing, caring and emotional, they hold that these femalefeatures would make a better world. Therefore, for radical feminists genderidentity is inherited in women's unique essence of femaleness.Mary Daly, a well-known cultural feminist, in a hermeneutic approachreinterpreted Christian script.

In her first book, "The Church and the Second Sex"(1968), she criticizes the way Christianity idealizes passive, submissive womenwhile making an illusion of equality between man and women. Daly holds that themasculine image of God in everybody's mind is one of the roots of maledomination. Transcend God is the creator of nature, which is associated withwoman.

God is the subject /I/ Self in relation to object /it/ other. In a patriarchalsociety where men view women as the second sex, men take the role of I/Selfopposed to women as nature/object. "Indeed, many would find it unfitting, notquite normal to refer to God as 'she'… [man as] "the image and glory of God"finds priority over women147. In another book, she states, "If God is man, then themale is God"148. Daly proposed a new immanent God, "who is with us", who is"degendered"149. Daly believes in female energy flowing from women's biological144Mackinnon C.A. Toward a Feminist Theory of the State.

Harvard University Press, 1989. p.139.Mackinonn. C.A. Feminism Unmodified Discourses on Life and Law. Harvard University Press, 1987. p.172.146Alcoff. L.M. Visible Identities: Race, Gender, and the Self. Oxford University Press, 2006. p. 135147Daly M. The Church and the Second Sex. Beacon Press, 1986. p.18.148Daly M. Beyond God the Father, Toward a Philosophy of Women's Liberation.

Boston: Beacon Press, 1993.p.19.149Chopp R.S., Taylor M.L. Reconstructing Christian Theology. Fortress Press, 1994. p.42.14540condition. Her Gyn/Ecology is the "reclaiming of life-loving female energy"150. Allmen due to their childless state realize their dependency on women and attempt tocontrol them. Female life energy is to be released from male control by refusingvalues set by patriarchy. Women, rejecting both positive and negative attributes,such as nurturing and jealousy, would return to their original femaleness that is notdecided by fathers.Socialist FeminismFollowing radical feminism arose the second wave of feminism.

Socialistfeminism rose in late 1960. This branch of feminism argues that women'soppression has both cultural and economic roots. Rejecting the radical feministsbelief on patriarchy as the only principle source of women's oppression, theyregard women's financial dependence to men as the reason of their subjection.However, they reject the Marxist idea that the end of capitalism and wealthbalance would end women's oppression. Liberation of women entails struggleagainst any oppressive social system including class, gender, race andnationality151.Reed, a Marxist feminist, rejected the radicals view that all women areequally oppressed because of belonging to a class labeled as women.

Rather,following Engels, she places the root of women's oppression in class society,founded upon private property. Women declined to be second sex when the societyunderwent transition from hunting to labor division, where men directed the roles,and enjoyed the out coming wealth as their private property. Consequently,marriage and family were institutionalized and owned by men.