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They took thecontrol of wives, who were in charge of house.However, along with women who became the subordinated class, the massof men were also subjugated under the domination of master class. Reed,150Daly M. Gyn/Ecology: The Metaphysics of Radical Feminism.
Boston: Beacon Press, 1990. p.181.Evans J. Feminist Theory Today: An Introduction to Second Wave Feminism. USA: SAGE Publication,1995.192p.15141encourages a "class war against capitalism by united men and women of oppressedclass"152.Socialist feminists reject the essential gender identity, instead, they believethat "It was with the rise of patriarchal class society that biological make up ofwomen became the ideological pretext for keeping them in a servile status"153.Psychoanalytic FeminismThe social roots of women's oppression were displaced by psychoanalyticfeminists insist on the psyche as the origin of our identification as male or female.Feminist psychology criticizes the traditional psychological assumptions as malecentered theories. It regards Freud's theory of "penis envy" and "hysteria" asgendered biased contributions to build gender roles.Nancy Chodorow, (1944), a feminist psychoanalyst, bases the roots ofwomen's oppression in development of ego after pre-oedipal stage in nuclearpatriarchal family.
She used the theory of object relations, according to whichmother is the most important object in baby's life. The infant must differentiatehim/herself to form the ego. However, this development process differs for girlsand boys. Girls identify themselves with their mothers and continue to have astronger bond with her and therefore less individuation and more fluidity of egothan boys do154. A Boy, to form his ego, differentiate himself from mother.
"Heidentifies with father to avoid cultural punishment".155Through this detachmentfrom mother, he develops his autonomous sense of independency from mother.Since father has a less role in childcare, the boy's identification with father isqualitatively different from girl's identification and bondage with mother. Theinfant boy, once bisexual, is then encouraged to define his ego away from mother152Reed E.
Women: Caste, Class or Oppressed Sex. International Socialist Review, Vol. 31, No. 3, 1970, pp. 15-17and 40-41.153Reed E. Is Biology Woman’s Destiny? International Socialist Review, Vol. 32, No. 11, 1971, pp. 7-11 and 3539.154Eagleton M. A Concise Companion to Feminist Theory. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. p.120.155Chodorow N.J. The Reproduction of Mothering.
University of California Press, 1978. p. 113.42in order to be socialized, he learns to repress his femininity and degrade it to gainindependent self. Chodorow writes, "The child knows its father from the beginningas a separate being, unless the father provides the same kind of primacyrelationship and care as the mother"156. She suggests that the father's involvementwould change the psychosexual Structures.
With fathers taking roles similar tothose of mothers, the infant would gain ego both in relation to others (like girls),and separated from others. Hence, the infant of this dual parenting system will notgrow up according to gender roles.Julia Kristeva, (1941), is another prominent psychoanalytic feminist.Though she rejects being a feminist, her ideas are elaborated to debate women'soppression. Kristeva places the sexual differences in the "semiotic", which is "thetime of mother/child bondage, a moment of bodily eroticism, melodies andmaternal rhythms, all of which precede the symbolic-the paternal zone"157.Symbolic is the element of meaning. It is associated with rules of language,grammar and syntax as well as with culture, while semiotics is associated withnature.
Kristeva accepting two aspects of semiotic and symbolic or unconsciousand conscious to the language argues that the first is gendered feminine, while thelatter implies masculinity. Indeed, semiotic arises from "chora". Kristeva uses thePlatonic concept of "chora" to refer to "the place where the developing thing, achild, is nurtured […and] the mother is responding to the child's needs158. In thisphase, the child understands itself not separated from mother and all the objectsaround her, but the child identifies itself with mother. The language that the infanthear signifies no references, but it is just sound and rhythm.
This relationshipbetween mother and child in intervened by symbolic. The child experiences theseparation from mother because "consciousness, the ego, and identity are allpromised on the intervention of the symbolic in the mother-child relation"159.156Ibid].p. 79-80.Gamble S. The Routledge Companion to Feminism and Post feminism. Routledge, 2004.
p.232.158Covino D.C. Amending the Abject Body: Aesthetic Makeovers in Medicine and Culture. SUNY Press, 2004. p.18159Lechte J. Julia Kristeva. Routledge, 2012. p.13015743Entering this stage (mirror stage in words of Lacan, 1936), the child begins toidentify itself as a separate body. This is the phase of crossing from semiotic tosymbolic "in which language points at persons and things and gives them a publicmeaning"160. Symbolic is the state of rules and signifying system andrepresentations. However, the individual in communication meaning fluxesbetween two aspects of semiotic and symbolic.
This oscillating between semioticand symbolic does not only configure language, but "it is also constitutive of thesubject… Kristeva refers to this unstable subject with her notion of subject inprocess"161. The individual oscillating between these two modes are open to havetheir own individual account of their identity. Therefore, Kristeva believes in Fluidnature of identity. The construction of one's self is neither dependent on symbolicnor to semiotics, rather it lingers on the borderline. Since there is no clearboundary between conscious and unconscious, the subject cannot be formedstably.The fluctuation between two phases is evident in the horror of "abject",which refers to the physical flows such as urine, sweat, vomit, menstrual blood,etc…that threaten and puncture our ideologically controlled body.
"To feel secure,one has to get rid of them and abject them162.This is the same way that the infantabjects mother to enter the clean realm of rule and symbolic. The mother throughtoilet training or eating processes helps the child with codes of social behavior.The child leaves the unfilthy realm, associated with mother, to gain individuality.In the cross from the horror of abject, he not only represses the mother, but alsorepresses "all women in general who are reduced to maternal function" 163.However, the individual as a subject in process has the capacity to change thesignification and in the case of women, their identification only with the function160Covino.
D.C. Amending the Abject Body: Aesthetic Makeovers in Medicine and Culture. SUNY Press, 2004.p.19.161Schippers B. Julia Kristeva and Feminist Thought. Edinburgh University Press, 2011. p.36.162Doncu R.E. Feminist Theories of Subjectivity: Judith Butler and Julia Kristeva. Journal of Romanian LiteraryStudies, No.
10, 2017, pp.332-336 .163Covino D.C. Amending the Abject Body: Aesthetic Makeovers in Medicine and Culture. SUNY Press, 2004.p.21.44of motherhood can be changed. Rather, she returns to the maternal body at last inpart to free woman from this very reduction"164. While Kristeva celebratesmotherhood, she also insists, "an ideal mother has to turn away from her childrento tend her own flowers, so that she too can bloom"165.To sum up, Kristeva believes that there is no biological gender identity,rather the individual entering symbolic chooses to identify itself with mother orfather, and as a result, the child will display femininity or masculinity.Postmodern FeminismPostmodern feminism eschew any single reason of women's oppression.Celebrating diversity and variety, "they invite each woman who reflects on theirwritings to b become the kind of feminist she wants to be"166.
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