Ильин А.А. Summary (История понятия «революция» у А.И. Герцена и М.А. Бакунина), страница 4

5. P.7–226. Herzen A.I. S togo berega // Sobraniye sochineniy: in 30 vols. M., 1955. Vol. 6. P. 7–142.memoirs that include elements of journalism and philosophical work, woven intobiographical narrative.45.Similar multilateralism is inherent in Bakunin’s “Federalism, Socialism,Anti-Theologism” and “Knuto-Germanic Empire and the Social Revolution” (itconsists of two parts and has many posthumously published additions andvariants). Revolyutsiya also became one of the main subjects of his last major work“Statism and Anarchy”46.It’s impossible to scrutinize revolution without taking into account variouspolitical activities of Herzen and Bakunin that had an effect on texts of politicalprograms, secret statutes and regulations.

Present research examines first of allconceptual features of these documents.Egodocuments, namely letters, diaries and memoirs are also utilized in thestudy. Letters are of great value for biographical reconstructions; furthermore, theyalso can be seen as a background and context for the larger texts. Noteworthy, theyenable one to learn about how the books were read and interpreted.Part of the documents used in research are stored at the State Archive of theRussian Federaion, (Gosudarstvennyj arhiv Rossijskoj Federacii, GARF), fond ofBakunins family (f. 825).

Some of the materials stored in M. Bakunin fond (f.206), Rossijskij gosudarstvennyj arhiv social'no-politicheskoj istorii (RGASPI) andat IISH (Michail Aleksandrovič Bakunin Papers).Official reports and police files give an indication how police officers andgovernment officials reacted to activities and writings of Herzen and Bakunin.They are concentrated at GARF, f.

109 (archive of the Third Section of HisImperial Majesty's Own Chancellery) and f. 112 (fond of the Justice Ministry).These collections, in appreciable part, comprise evidences in the cases of political45Herzen A.I. O razvitii revolyutsionnykh idey v Rossii // Sobraniye sochineniy: in 30 vols. M.,1954. Vol. 7. P. 137–266. “My Past and Thougths” is published in the volumes 8–11 of theCollected Works.46Bakunin M.A. Gosudarstvennost' i anarkhiya // Izbrannyye sochineniya: in 5 vols. Petrograd;M., 1919.

Vol.1; Bakunin M.A. Knuto–germanskaya imperiya i sotsial'naya revolyutsiya. Vyp. 1// Izbrannyye sochineniya: in 5 vols. Petrograd; M., 1919. Vol. 2. P. 17–132; Bakunin M.A.Knuto–germanskaya imperiya i sotsial'naya revolyutsiya. Vyp. 2 // Ibid. P. 137–195.crimes, such as fragmental and complete copies of the perlustrated letters,confiscated during searches manuscripts. They allow to judge about broadaudience response to the Herezen and Bakunin ideas and actions, and also theyshed the light on the reactions of early revolutionary movement and Russian leftistyouth of that time.NoveltyThe paper presents a first special study of revolution in 19-th century Russia.In order to do this conceptual history methodology is applied to the subject.Revolutsiya is examined as a many-sided phenomenon occupying an importantplace in the Herzen and Bakunin theories.

New intellectual influences were tracedand textual borrowings were found in the process of research. Archival sourceshelped to explain better the background for Herzen and Bakunin intellectualbiographies. All this facilitated the deeper understanding of the context and theirthought itself.The main theses of the dissertation:1) Revolyutsiya consisted of dissimilar elements.

Asynchrony was theirimportant feature that was flattening out in course of their development. Anyfundamental and fast change in some sphere of human life was likely to be called a“revolyutsiya”. Notwithstanding the relatively prevalence of the word, modern andneutral meaning wasn’t used in the context of current political events due to thecensorship. In this case the word had archaic meaning with negative connotations.As a rule, it meant illegitimate encroachment of the monarch’s subjects on herGod-given rights. The meaning of this word underwent significant changesbecause of liberalization of the Alexander the II, and emerging revolutionarymovement.

New and modern conceptions of political and social revolutionscomplemented previous archaic ones.2) Debates about revolution and reform ensued in Russia in 1850-1860s. Threat ofrevolution was a tool used by the government in order to justify its reformatoryundertakings, but, references to revolutionary menace also helped public figuresand movements to press on the government. Thanks to these developmentsrevolyutsiya in the modern sense was partially legitimized, that sanctioned publicuse of modern versions of the concept. Herzen and Bakunin were among thosewho presented their own considerations on revolution. Particularly, theycontributed to the development of “revolution from above” conception.

It meantthat significant and democratic change was to make under the direction of themonarchic government.3) Herzen’s and Bakunin’s ideas and theories concerning the revolutions took rootsin 1830-1850s. They both were consequently influenced by the early Frenchsocialism, radical republicanism, German classical philosophy and Proudhonism.Revolution became one of the central concepts for these authors. Theycomprehended various theoretical issues, current political events and their ownbiographies with its help.

Herzen and Bakunin usually presented themselves asrevolutionaries, or at least as advocates and supporters of revolution.4) Herzen’s and Bakunin’s revolutionary conceptions were partially shaped by thetransfer of the West European ideas and theories. These authors tried to apply themto the Russian conditions without changing them sufficiently. As a result, theirconceptions were quite peculiar for the Russia of this period. They were almostdevoid of monarchist and religious influence.

Instead, they had positiveconnotations and were focused on political action. Herzen and Bakunin opposedconservative and liberal theories of revolution. These authors thought that it was aprogressive event marking new historical era. As a rule, they understood therevolution as an act of popular self-liberation accompanied by the complex socialand political change. Critics often condemned revolutions for their violence andterror; Herzen and Bakunin sometimes agreed with them, but more often theyinsisted that in some cases use of force could be justified. They employed differentargumentative strategies, appealing to morals or historical necessity. Herzen andBakunin were of the opinion that complete rationalization of politics and expulsionof feelings from it would be potentially harmful.

In order to substantiate theirviews, they referred to history of revolutions oftentimes. They tended to think thatsincerity and passion of the participants accounted for the positive aspects of therevolutionary events.5) There were sufficient differences between Herzen’s and Bakunin’srevolutionary conceptions. First of all, the attitude towards the actual revolutionarypractices distinguished them from each other. Herzen preferred to set himself asidefrom the professional revolutionaries, their ideas and organizations. He thought ofhimself as of critical and ironical observer. As a result, his conception of revolutionis characterized by the certain abstractness.

Revolution in his works referred to thefuture and to the past; it’s connections with the present usually were more weak.Unlike Herzen, Bakunin took identity of revolutionary and didn’t distance himselffrom the radical organizations. His views on the revolution were rather practical.Theory for him was indistinguishable from the planning and justification of currentpolitical action. Another important difference was in personal dimension of therevolution. Herzen related this concept with the author’s personal experience andintrospection, whereas Bakunin tended to neglect these aspects of the revolution.Reliability and approbation of the resultsMain theses were presented at conferences and seminars: internationalacademic young scientists and scholars undergraduate and graduate studentsconference “Lomonosov” (Moscow, 2015, 2016), conference “Phenomenon ofM.A.

Bakunin: a Gaze from the 21st Century” (St.-Petersburg, 2015), Priamukhinoreadings (Tver region, Priamukhino 2015, 2016 and 2017), conference“Problematics of War in Humanities: History and Research Perspectives”(Moscow, 2015), GRACEH2016: The 10th Graduate Conference in EuropeanHistory (Budapest, 2016), conference “The Modes of thinking, the Ways ofSpeaking” (Moscow, 2017). Main results of the dissertation were published injournals which are on the list of the Higher Attestation Commission.Structure of the study corresponds to its aim and objectives.

The workconsists of introduction, three chapters, conclusion and references.Summary of the dissertationFirst chapter “The Origins of Herzen’s and Bakunin’s Conceptions ofRevolution” consists of two paragraphs. First one «To the History ofRevolyutsiya in Russia» deals with the emergence and development ofrevolyutsiya in the period between the end of the 18th century and 1870s. It istraced in periodicals, dictionaries, legislative acts and in writings of the importantauthors.

Its history is inseparable from the problem of translation and adaptation tothe local circumstances. Revolution in its modern form emerged in the West andwas adopted in Russia, where it faced with the censorship and rival archaictheories and ideas. Special attention therefore is given to the predominant in Russiain the first half of the 19th century religious and monarchic point of view onrevolutions.It is pointed out that positively evaluated conceptions of revolutions werescarcely presented in the public sphere. The main reason for this was a censorshipand political control by the authorities.