43440 (Сategory of number of nouns), страница 3

These scissors are sharp. Your spectacles are on the table. Your opera-glasses are very good.

b) Nouns which have collective meaning (concrete or abstract):

1. Concrete: stairs, goods, eaves, slums, outskirts, tropics, memoirs, victuals [vitlz] (провизия), supplies, clothes, sweepings, slops (помои), preserves (консервы), parings (кожура), sweets, lodgings (sometimes) lodging; but always board and lodging), etc.:

The car went smoothly and swiftly through the outer suburbs… [4] Beads of water still dripped from the eaves… [24] At last they reached the outskirts of the forest… [15] «Got any lodgings – «No.» [10] «Come, hand in eatables.» [10] My clothes were my Sunday best. [2] «I say, can you let a lodging?» [7]

2. Abstract: holidays, tidings, goings-on (поступки), begin nings (also beginning), earnings, wages (often in the singular, especially in the following combinations: a living wage, a fixed wage, a minimum wage), contents, etc.:

She tried to adjust herself to her new surroundings. [4] These are indeed happy tidings. We get good wages. They spent their holidays in the mountains. Bad beginnings make good endings (первый блин комом). «Well,» said Wardle, «here are pretty goings-on…» [10] He told me of some of his doings. [5]

3. In some nouns the final – s loses the meaning of the plural inflexion and the noun is treated as a singular. This is the case with the names of sciences and occupations in – ics: mathematics, phonetics, optics, which are usually considered as singular:

Phonetics is the science of sounds. Mathematics is his strong point. Optics is a branch of physics; it treats of light.

These nouns are treated as plurals when practical application is meant:

His phonetics are excellent. The acoustics of this hall are good.

Politics, tactics, gymnastics, athletics are generally regarded as plurals.

«The only politics I understand,» answered Magnus sternly, «are honest politics.» [6]

4. With some nouns the usage wavers, and the noun is treated either as a singular or as a plural:

The gas-works is (are) situated on the river. Price's works was small. [5] To-day we are going to visit a great smelting-works… [6]

It should be noted that with regard to nouns used only in the plural the English and the Russian usage sometimes differ. Thus the noun opera-glasses is used in English only in the plural, whereas in Russian бинокль has both numbers. The noun сани is used in Russian only in the plural; in English sledge has both numbers. Other nouns are used in one language only in the plural, in the other – only in the singular. Thus in Russian the noun сумерки is used only in the plural, whereas in English the noun twilight is used only in the singular.

2. Nouns Used in the Plural in a Special Sense

In some cases the plural form of the noun does not express were pluralities (as in tables = table + table…) but acquires a special meaning. Very often the plural form, besides this specific meaning, may also retain the exact meaning of the singular thus resulting in two homonymous words:

colour = tint, colours = 1) plural of tint, 2) flag:

«I do not mean regimental colours, but the watercolours.» [17]

custom = habit, customs = 1) plural of habit, 2) duties:

Many old customs are dying out. Customs (пошлины) are duties imposed by law on goods imported and exported.

pain = suffering, pains = I) plural of suffering, 2) effort:

She enlivened our journey by describing to us… the various pains she had in her back. [11] «I have examined Adele… and find you have taken great pains with her… [2]

quarter = fourth part, quarters = 1) plural of fourth part, 2) lodgings:

I have read three quarters of the book. We found him ire his old quarters.

work = toil, labour; works in various senses: the works of a watch (механизм часов), works of art, etc.

1. Double Plural Forms

Some nouns have double plurals used with some difference of meaning:

f 1) brothers (sons of one mother) brother – y 2) brethren (members of one community)

J 1) geniuses (men of genius) genius ^ ₂) genii (spirits)

f 1) pennies (number of coins) penny – y 2) pence (amount of pennies in value)

(1) staffs (military staffs [штаб], staffs [штат] of an staff institution)

I 2) staves (sticks)

II) cloths (kinds of cloth) cloth – clothes (articles of dress)

J I) indexes (tables of contents) index – indices (in mathematics)

2. The Development or Loss of Plural Forms in Connection with a Change or Variation of Meaning of the Noun

1. A number of nouns in English which are used only in the singular (uncountable) may through a change or variation of meaning acquire the forms of both numbers, singular and plural (and thus become countable). This is found in the following instances:

a) Material nouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable) express numbers, singular and plural (countable), when they denote different sorts:

«This is a very rare and most delicious wine. [10] There are many different wines on this list. The teas (tobaccos) of this plantation are of a very good quality. We produce high quality steels.

Note. – When a material noun serves to denote an object made of that material, it becomes a class-noun and may be used in both numbers:

Give me a glass (two glasses) of water. I have bought a new iron (two-new irons). A copper, two coppers (медная монета, медяк).

b) The noun hair is used in the singular (волосы); a hair is used only with the meaning of a few separate hairs (волосок, волоски):

…this girl's hair was chestnut, almost auburn. [6] She has a few grey hairs. She has more hair than wit, and more faults than hairs. (Shakespeare.)

c) The noun fruit is used in the singular. The plural form fruits denotes different kinds of fruit:

The fruit is not yet ripe. We have much fruit this year.

But: The fruits were local, consisting of apples, pears, nuts, and such other products of the summer… [9]

The plural form fruit is also used when the meaning is figurative:

Fruits of the workers' toil are buried in the strong coffers of a few. (The International.) The rich fruits of the heroic labour of Soviet people are visible from all corners of the earth, and they are an inspiration to the citizens of other countries advancing along the path of Socialism.

d) Abstract nouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable), taken in a general sense, acquire both numbers (and thus become countable) when they express concrete instances or special aspects of the notion which they denote:

It has been such a joy to see you and Holly. [21]… he sympathized with their joys and grieves; [5]

…now I remembered that the real world was wide, and that a varied field of hopes and fears, of sensations and excitements, awaited those who had courage to go forth into its expense to seek real knowledge of life amidst its perils. [2]… May.night had fallen soft and warm, enwrapping with its grape bloom colour and its scents the billion caprices, intrigues, passions, longings, and regrets of men and women. [21] Little Sharp, with her secret griefs, was the heroine of the day. [1] When sorrows come, they come, not single spies, but in battalions. [1]

Note. – When such nouns as beauty, youth, etc. do not denote abstract qualities but people characterized by those qualities, they become class-nouns and are used in both numbers (like countable nouns): a beauty (красавица), a youth (юноша);

This girl is a real beauty. The youths were marching with red banners-Some abstract nouns are used in English only in the singular (uncountable), whereas in Russian the corresponding nouns are used in both numbers (countable): information, news, business, advice, work (работа), progress (успех), and others: «What sort of work did you do?"[4] «You always give me good advice…» [10] «This news has shaken me, Eliot.» [20] She is making splendid progress in English.

To indicate concrete instances of advice, information, etc., the words piece or item are used:

You tell them one or two items of news. [11] «It is a very strange piece of business!» I added… [2]»… I'd like to give you a little piece of advice.» [24] She gave me one piece of intelligence, which affected me very much… [10]

2. Sometimes material nouns and abstract nouns are used in the plural with emphatic force:

The frozen snows of the Arctic; the sands of the Sahara Desert; the blue waters of the Mediterranean Sea; a thousand thanks; a thousand pities.

The thunders bellowed over the wild waste of waters, and were echoed and prolonged by the mountain waves. [13]

«Thanks. A thousand and one thanks. [19] Far off, rising in an immense slope…Etna soars towards the heavens, sending from the summit, on which the snows still linger, a steady plume of ivory smoke. [13]»… it would be a thousand pities to throw away such a chance of fun.» [2] Far below…I heard the «unseen tumbling of the waters. [23] «A thousand pardons?» [10] At sleepy intervals the surf flung its foam across the sands to the grass… [7]

3. A number of nouns which express both singular and plural (countable) may with a change of meaning are used only in the singular (thus becoming uncountable). This is the case:

a) When the name of an animal is used to denote its flesh used as food:

A fat brown goose lay at one end of the table… [11] (a countable noun) – While Gabriel and Miss Daly exchanged plates of goose and plates of ham and spiced beef, Lily went from guest to guest… [11] (an uncountable noun) Two white swans came majestically by… [21] (a countable noun) «I have n-never eaten roast swan b-before,» I stammered… [24] (an uncountable noun)

b) When the names of trees are used to indicate the corresponding kind of wood as material or as live plants:

And among the oaks the bluebells stood in pools of azure… [22] (a countable noun) – «Oak», he exclaimed. «All carved oak, right up the ceiling…» [11] (an uncountable noun)… beautiful woods of birch, fir, and pine cast their shadows through the carriage window as we speed along. [19] (an uncountable noun)… a narrow strip of larch and beech… stretched out towards the valley… [21] (uncountable nouns)… I come into a lane, which winds upwards between grassy slopes to… woods of noble beech. [21] (an uncountable noun)

c) When the nouns tree, bush, twig, etc. do not indicate separate objects but an indivisible whole (compare with the meaning of such nouns as leafage, blossom, brushwood, also with the Russian листва, цвет, кустарник – собирательные существительные):

It (the tree) was covered with young blossoms, pink and _t white…; and on this entire blossom! The sunlight glistened. [21] (1. a countable noun; 2. an uncountable noun) – … the may-flower, both pink and white, was in full bloom. [21] (a countable noun)… an old orchard of apple-trees just breaking into flower, stretched down to a stream and a long wild meadow. [21] (an uncountable noun)… a few gold leaves are still hanging… [21] (a countable noun) The apple-tree was in leaf, and all but in flower – its crimson buds just bursting. [7] (uncountable nouns) In that early spring a few buds were showing already. [7] (a countable noun) – He leaned against one of the satin-smooth stems, under the lacery of twig and bud. [7] (uncountable nouns)