Literary words

Types: general & special

general literary words – bookish, belong to the official speech

ubiquitous (вездесущий), pernicious (пагубный)

special literary words: - neologisms, - archaic, - barbarisms, - terms

styl neologisms retain individual colour, are use for exotic effect. When a community begins to talk in these words, they become lexicological neologisms, stop being styl neologisms. Made on the basis of word building existing patterns: - suffixation

A spoonfula stateful of, armful of charm.

conversation: to mother, to mydear (expressiveness)

compounds: stepmotherland

archaic words: obsolete, historical, proper

obsolete archaic words – not identified by the language community (happily for perhaps, nay for no). to create historical background

archaic words proper – not typical for El, but not so old as obsolete words, used for fun, joke: thou (ты), thee (тебя, тебе)

historical words – denote objects, general phenomena, not relevant now: spear (копье), vassal for creating a true to life background

barbarisms – borrowings, retained native spelling and pronunciation: tet-a-tet, babushka

terms – in special literature, no connotations, neutral. 2 purposes: 1) convincing background; 2) humorous effect

colloquial words

slang, jargonism, vulgarism, dialectal words (have neutral synonyms of the vocabulary)

slang – in/out of the language very soon, main feature – expressiveness which is result from figurativeness, the image is transparent (buck for dollar, all that jazz – all that stuff, gas – fun)

there can be some phonetic peculiarities: sound imitation (blip – quick, insignificant, of little importance: it was not a fight, only a blip)

some word building peculiarities: through abbriviation (shortening)

business – bus, teenager – teen

jargonisms – social and professional

social gargonisms – words used by a particular social class (mafia jargonisms: wacked – killed)

professional – used to replace terms: a shot – injection, x-ray – scrins

dialectal words – retain dialectal character, to create local coloring : pat – dialectal “darling” (now – no longer dialectal because lost its dialectal characteristics)

vulgarisms – tabu words, ненормативные слова

35. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices

several groups of stylistic devices, lexical devices are the most numerous

1. based on the interaction of different types of meaning

2. descriptive devices

3. on use of phraseology

4. on different styles, the contamination

1. based on the interaction of different types of meaning - of the logical and contextual types of meanings

metaphor

based on the resemblance between the object named and the object implied (on the association of similarity)

Lucy was a violette on a mossy stone

the metaphor can be

a) - sustained, prolonged or 1 word-metaphor

b) – noun M, verb M, adj M (metaphorical epithets) spidery fingers, he listened hungrily

a kind of M is the personification -

Necessity is the mother of invention

Metonymy

Based on the association of contiguity between the object named and the object implied

types:

-between a part and a whole

-symbolic association through a symbol established (from the cradle to the grave)

-trite M (the Cremlin said...)

-original M (the moustache and I have nothing common)

Irony

Based on the contradiction betw the logical and contextual meaning through it, words are made to arouse an opposite meaning (saying the opposite of what you actually mean)

How nice of you to have lost my key!

Antonomasia

Interaction betw the nominal and logical components of the meaning, instead of the figure’s name is used a quality of the character, a trait: He is a real Hercules

Epithets

Indirection betw the logical and motive components, disclose the individual emotional colored attitude of the author to describe the object. Expressed by adj, adv, nouns in an attributive position and the of-phrase

He was a man with lips of flame but with a heart of stone

-by ordinary adj: a grey metallic face

-whole attributive chains (syntactical units, may form expressive epithets: don’t-touch-me-or-i’ll-kill-you

-fixed epithets: my true love

-transferred E: unbreakfasted morning

Oxymoron

a combination (adj+noun, adj+adv ‘pleasantly ugly’), a combination of openly contradictory words and meanings. (sharp dullness)

hyperbole

overstatement, obvious and deliberate exaggeration. Its pur­pose is to emphasize something or to pro­duce a humorous effect.

all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand

Zeugma

The direct and figurative meanings are engaged at the same time (He took his sorrows and books to Paris)

Pun

A play of words, based on polysemy and homonymy, a play on words that have a similar sound but different mean­ings. The E has many homophones The importance of Being Earnest

2. descriptive devices

Allusion

Reference to well-known characters, facts: historic (He was an Napoleon), literary, mythological, biblical

simile

a kind of comparison in which 2 things are com­pared be­cause they have smth in common (like or as)

She walks like an angel.

periphrasis

a around-about way of describing things

kinds of P:

-metonimic P: marry a big bag of money

-metaphoric P: a ship (camel)

-euphemistic P (common in mass-media to conceal true motives): a war – involvement

1. the use of phraseology

the transformation of P/U, manipulating the components, concealing the primary meaning, manipulating the imagination:

to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth (He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth and the spoon remained there)

1. contamination of style

mixing up of the words relating to different stylistic levels

36. Syntactical expressive means

• sentences and paragraphs; word order, different constructions

within a sentence

Inversion

Inverted WO, is used to emphasize that part of a sentence is of great significance

2 types of I: isolation & ellipsis

isolation – a private case of I; usually expressed by an attribute or adv modifier: Pale and trembling, Mary opened the door

Ellipsis (used to draw smb’s attention): Becky entered the ball-room, her face radiant.

Rhetorical question and litotes – gramm. form is contradictory to their meaning

Rq don’t need any answers, a kind of statement.

Litotes - a deliberate understatement, often designed to create a comic or sarcastic effect. Mary was not a little surprised. He is not unlike a bull

Represented speech

2 types: - represented uttered

• represented inner

It is a mixture of the direct speech & indirect speech

1. the WO is reserved as ds

2. the sequence of tense is observed

3. only in the 3d person

4. contains all kinds of interjections & exclamations

Within a paragraph

A paragraph is a device itself. Its criteria – integrity, coherence. It contains one topic (which runs through the whole paragraph). Coherence is a logical sequence of ideas, having a clear connection among all the parts by using connecting devices  (transitions, bridging sentences, repeated words, synonyms, conjunctions).

Parallel constructions – the pattern of the 1. sentence is repeated in the next sentence, shows equal importance, adds balance and rhythm and clarity to the sentence (He loved her dearly, she loved him passionately).

Chiasmus – a reversed parallelism (he stood up, down sat she).

Climax (gradation) – a special arrangement of sentences used to show an increase in emotions, significance: Your son is ill. He is desperately ill. I think he is beyond hope.

Antithesis – a syntactical device, contrast of 2 ideas brought out through parallel constructions, .2 criteria – the 2 sent repeat the same syntactical pattern + logical contrast, contextual antonyms (in intellect they are angels, in their lust - serpents)

Cumulation – a conjunction is used to combine 2 parts of the paragraph which at first sight have no logical connection: He adored his mother and it was his first trip

Repetition - emphasize smth important, to reinforce a theme, to create parallel structure, to highlight the speaker's attitude, to focus the reader's attention on some idea. Its function – to create a certain rhythmical effect

3 types: - anaphora – the first word is repeated

• epiphora – the final element is repeated

• framing – the initial element is repeated at the end of the sentence