Richard Leach - Fundamental prinsiples of engineering nanometrology (778895), страница 67
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Phys. Lett. 78 1628–1630[54] Dushkin C D, Yoshimura H, Nagayama K 1996 Note - Direct measurementof nanonewton capillary forces J. Colloid Interface Sci. 181 657–660[55] Choi J-H, Kim M-S, Park Y-K 2007 Quantum-based mechanical force realization in the piconewton range Appl. Phys. Lett. 90 90 073117Appendix ASI units of measurementand their realization at NPLQuantityUnit (symbol)DefinitionRealisationTimesecond (s)The second is the durationof 9 192 631 770 periodsof the radiationcorresponding to thetransition between the twohyperfine levels of theground state of thecaesium 133 atom.Lengthmetre (m)The metre is the length ofthe path travelled by lightin a vacuum during a timeinterval of 1/299 792 458of a second.Masskilogram (kg)The kilogram is the unit ofmass; it is equal to themass of the internationalprototype of the kilogram.The second is realized byprimary caesiumfrequency standards toabout 2 parts in 1015.
Themajority are traditionalcaesium-beam designsbut the latest use lasers tocontrol and detect theatoms.At NPL the metre iscurrently realized throughthe wavelength of the633 nm radiation from aniodine-stabilized heliumneon laser, with anuncertainty of about3 parts in 1011.Kilogram masses and submultiples of 1 kg, madefrom similar materials,may be compared on theNPL precision balance to1 mg.(Continued)311312Appendix AQuantityUnit (symbol)DefinitionRealisationElectric currentampere (A)The ampere is thatconstant current which, ifmaintained in two straightparallel conductors ofinfinite length, of negligiblecircular cross-section, andplaced 1 m apart invacuum, would producebetween these conductorsa force equal to 2 10 7N per metre of their length.Thermodynamictemperaturekelvin (K)The kelvin is the fraction of1/273.16 of thethermodynamictemperature of the triplepoint of water.Amount of substancemole (mol)The mole is the amount ofsubstance of a system thatcontains as manyelementary entities asthere are atoms in0.012 kg of carbon 12.The ampere is realized, viathe watt, to about 0.08 mAusing NPL’s currentweighing and induced-emfmethod.
The ohm isrealized at NPL viaa Thomson-Lambertcalculable capacitor toabout 0.05 mU andmaintained via thequantized Hall resistanceto about 0.01 mU. The voltis maintained to 0.01 mVusing the Josephsoneffects ofsuperconductivity.Triple point of water cellsare used at NPL to realizethe triple pointtemperature witha reproducibility of 0.1 mKvia the InternationalTemperature Scale interms of which platinumresistance and otherthermometers arecalibrated within the range0.65 K to 3000 K.Measurements of amountof substance do notrequire the mole to berealized directly from itsdefinition.
They are madeusing primary methodsthat give results expressedin moles by combiningmeasurements made inother SI units. The numberof entities in one mole isknown to 1 part in 107.(Continued)Appendix AQuantityUnit (symbol)DefinitionRealisationLuminous intensitycandela (cd)The candela is theluminous intensity, ina given direction, ofa source that emitsmonochromaticradiation of frequency540 1012 Hz andthat has a radiantintensity in that directionof 1/683 W$sr 1.The candela has beenrealized at NPL with anuncertainty of 0.02 %,using a cryogenicradiometer that equatesthe heating effect of opticalradiation with that ofelectric power.
A solidstate photometer has beendeveloped to evaluate lightof other frequenciesaccording to the spectralluminous efficiency curveof the human eye with anuncertainty of 0.1 %.313This page intentionally left blankAppendix BSI derived unitsExamples of SI derived units expressed in terms of baseunitsDerived quantitySI derived unit nameSymbolAreaVolumeSpeed, velocityAccelerationWavenumberDensityCurrent densityMagnetic field strengthConcentrationLuminanceRefractive indexsquare metrecubic metremetre per secondmetre per second squaredreciprocal metrekilogram per cubic metreampere per square metreampere per metremole per cubic metrecandela per square metreunitym2m3m$s 1m$s 2m 1kg$m 3A$m 2A$m 1mol$m 3cd$m 21SI derived units with special names and symbolsDerived quantitySI derivedunit nameSymbolPlane angleSolid angleFrequencyForceradiansteradianhertznewtonradsrHzNIn terms ofother unitsIn terms ofbase units11s 1m$kg$s2(Continued)315316Appendix BDerived quantitySI derivedunit nameSymbolPressureEnergyPowerElectric chargeElectric potential differenceCapacitanceElectric resistanceElectric conductanceMagnetic fluxMagnetic flux densityInductanceLuminous fluxIlluminanceActivity (of a radionuclide)Absorbed dosepascaljoulewattcoulombvoltfaradohmsiemensweberteslahenrylumenluxbecquerelgrayPaJWCVFWSWbTHlmlxBqGyIn terms ofother unitsIn terms ofbase unitsN$m 2N$mJ$s 1m 1$kg$s 2m2$kg$s 2m2$kg$s 3s$Am2$kg$s 3$A 1m 2$kg 1$s4$A2m2$kg$s 3$A 1m 2$kg 1$s 3$Am2$kg$s 2$A 1kg$s 2$A 1m2$kg$s 2$A 2Cdcd$m 2s 1m2$s 2W$A 1C$V 1V$A 1A$V 1V$sWb$m 2Wb$A 1cd$srlm$m 2J$kg12IndexAAbbe criterion, 134Abbe error, 40, 41, 92, 94, 274,283, 284Abbe offset, 40, 107, 283Abbe Principle, 40, 41, 82, 275absorption index, 130accuracy, 15, 16acoustic noise, 51acousto-optic frequency shifter,88active vibration isolation, 51ADC.
See analogue-to-digitalconverteradded-mass method, 192adhesion force, 190, 198AFM. See atomic force microscopeamplitude distribution curve, 222,226amplitude-wavelength space, 117analogue probe, 266angle, 13angular distribution of scatter,153angular interferometer, 98angular power spectrum, 242aperture correction, 78, 81, 127area-integrating, 123areal material ratio, 239, 240, 241areal parameter, 164, 235, 240areal surface texture, 116, 121,159, 229areal topography measuring, 123area-scale fractal complexity,256arithmetic mean of the absoluteheight, 236arithmetic mean peak curvature,250arithmetical mean deviation of theassessed profile, 219ARS. See angle-resolved scatterarticulated arm CMMs, 268atomic force microscope, 12, 186atomic lattice parameter,108, 109atomic resolution, 178, 181autocollimator, 13, 56, 269, 283auto-correlation function, 237auto-correlation length, 237Avogadro constant, 12, 294Avogadro method, 12Avogadro project, 294axial resolution, 17, 138, 141,156Bbackscattered electrons, 199, 200band-pass filter, 213, 216base quantities, 7batwings, 130beam waist, 129bearing length ratio, 225bearing ratio curve, 225, 226bi-directional fringe counting, 86bi-directional scatter distributionfunction, 153bifurcated sensor, 105BIPM.
See Bureau Internationaldes Poids et Mesuresbirefringent, 87Bragg angle, 109Brewster’s angle, 104BSDF. See bi-directional scatterdistribution functionbuoyancy effect, 290Bureau International des Poids etMesures, 11CCAD. See computer-aided designcantilever, 106, 191capacitive instrument, 155capacitive sensor, 99, 100capillary force, 194, 307carbon nanotube, 2, 196Cartesian coordinates, 36, 263central limit theorem, 19, 20CGPM. See Conférence Généraledes Poids et Mesureschange tree, 244, 245charge on an electron, 12chemical force microscopy, 195chemical vapour deposition, 196closed dale area, 250closed dale volume, 251closed hill area, 251closed hill volume, 251CMM.
See coordinate measuringmachineCNT. See carbon nanotubeCoblentz sphere, 153coefficient of friction, 195coefficient of linear thermalexpansion, 93coefficient of thermal expansion,77coherence length, 25, 62coherence scanninginterferometer, 131, 149Combined Optical and X-rayInterferometer, 110comparator, 57, 271, 289, 295computer-aided design, 263Conférence Générale des Poids etMesures, 7confocal chromatic, 131, 138confocal curve, 135, 136, 138confocal instrument, 130, 134constraint, 36, 37, 38, 88contact mode, 179, 180, 193contrast, 61coordinate measuring machine, 4,10, 41, 263coordinate metrology, 4, 263core material volume, 241core void volume, 241correlation length, 237, 238cosine error, 82, 93course line, 244coverage factor, 21317318Indexcoverage interval, 18, 19CSI. See coherence scanninginterferometercumulative error, 92current balance, 294cut-off length, 165, 258equivalent viscous damping, 50error, 3, 15error mapping, 269evaluation length, 213expanded uncertainty, 21, 92extreme-value parameter, 218cylindrical capacitor, 100Ddale change tree, 246, 247dale volume, 241damping, 38, 50deadpath length, 93deadweight, 12, 301degrees of freedom, 19, 20density of peaks, 250developed interfacial area ratio,239DHM.
See digital holographicmicroscopedifferential plane mirrorinterferometer, 90, 91, 110diffuse reflection, 152digital hologram, 147, 148digital holographic microscope,147dimensionless quantity, 13displacement interferometry, 30,86, 92displacement sensor, 3, 85Doppler broadening, 24Doppler shift, 86, 88dynamic noise, 183EEBSD. See electron backscattereddiffractionelastic compression, 41elastic element, 301Electrical Nanobalance, 304electromagnetic waves, 9, 59electron backscattered diffraction,200electron gun, 201electron microscope, 116electron microscopy, 199electronic balance, 296electrostatic force balance, 299elliptical polarization, 59end standard, 8, 56energy level, 23, 24engineering nanometrology, 2, 55FFabry-Pérot interferometer, 23, 25,70feature parameter, 156, 229, 235,243feedback, 28, 40FIB. See focused ion beamfield of view, 126field parameter, 162, 235film thickness, 79filter, 26, 125, 129finesse, 71five point peak height, 250five point pit height, 250Fizeau interferometer, 66focal length, 78, 129focal shift error, 141focus variation instrument, 142focused ion beam, 178, 205F-operator, 230, 231force, 3, 12force curve, 189, 190force–distance curve, 189, 190fractal dimension, 252, 253fractal geometry, 251, 252fractal parameter, 235, 251free spectral range, 71, 91freeform component, 268frequency comb, 31frequency-stabilized laser, 23Fresnel equations, 153frictional force, 195fringe counting, 86, 89fringe fraction, 74, 80full change tree, 246full width at half maximum, 135fundamental physical constants,11FWHM.
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