Richard Leach - Fundamental prinsiples of engineering nanometrology (778895), страница 2
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1075.7.2 Calibration using X-ray interferometry ........................1085.8 References .......................................................................111CHAPTER 6 Surface topography measurement instrumentation .......... 1156.1 Introduction to surface topography measurement ............... 1156.2 Spatial wavelength ranges................................................
1166.3 Historical background of classical surface texturemeasuring instrumentation .............................................. 1176.4 Surface profile measurement............................................ 1206.5 Areal surface texture measurement................................... 1216.6 Surface topography measuring instrumentation.................. 1226.6.1 Stylus instruments.................................................
1236.7 Optical instruments......................................................... 1266.7.1 Limitations of optical instruments ........................... 1276.7.2 Scanning optical techniques................................... 1326.7.2.1 Triangulation instruments .......................... 1326.7.2.2 Confocal instruments.................................
1346.7.2.2.1 Confocal chromatic probeinstrument ................................ 1386.7.2.3 Point autofocus profiling ............................1396.7.3 Areal optical techniques .........................................1426.7.3.1 Focus variation instruments ....................... 1426.7.3.2 Phase-shifting interferometry ..................... 1446.7.3.3 Digital holographic microscopy ................... 1476.7.3.4 Coherence scanning interferometry ............. 1496.7.4 Scattering instruments ...........................................
1526.8 Capacitive instruments .................................................... 1556.9 Pneumatic instruments.................................................... 1566.10 Calibration of surface topography measuring instruments ......1566.10.1 Traceability of surface topographymeasurements..................................................... 1566.10.2 Calibration of profile measuring instruments .......... 1576.10.3 Calibration of areal surface texture measuringinstruments ........................................................
1596.11 Uncertainties in surface topography measurement ............. 162Contents6.12 Comparisons of surface topography measuring instruments ... 1656.13 Software measurement standards .....................................1676.14 References .....................................................................168CHAPTER 7 Scanning probe and particle beam microscopy................ 1777.1 Scanning probe microscopy................................................1787.2 Scanning tunnelling microscopy .........................................1807.3 Atomic force microscopy....................................................1817.3.1 Noise sources in atomic force microscopy ..................1827.3.1.1 Static noise determination ...........................1837.3.1.2 Dynamic noise determination .......................1837.3.1.3 Scanner xy noise determination....................1837.3.2 Some common artefacts in AFM imaging ...................1857.3.2.1 Tip size and shape ......................................1857.3.2.2 Contaminated tips.......................................1867.3.2.3 Other common artefacts ..............................1867.3.3 Determining the coordinate system of an atomicforce microscope .....................................................1867.3.4 Traceability of atomic force microscopy .....................1877.3.4.1 Calibration of AFMs.....................................1887.3.5 Force measurement with AFMs .................................1897.3.6 AFM cantilever calibration........................................1917.3.7 Inter- and intra-molecular force measurementusing AFM ..............................................................1937.3.7.1 Tip functionalisation ...................................1957.3.8 Tip sample distance measurement ............................1967.3.9 Challenges and artefacts in AFMforce measurements.................................................1977.4 Scanning probe microscopy of nanoparticles .......................1987.5 Electron microscopy ..........................................................1997.5.1 Scanning electron microscopy ..................................1997.5.1.1 Choice of calibration specimen forscanning electron microscopy ......................2007.5.2 Transmission electron microscopy .............................2017.5.3 Traceability and calibration of transmissionelectron microscopes ...............................................2027.5.3.1 Choice of calibration specimen.....................2037.5.3.2 Linear calibration ........................................2037.5.3.3 Localised calibration ...................................2037.5.3.4 Reference graticule .....................................2047.5.4 Electron microscopy of nanoparticles ........................2047.6 Other particle beam microscopy techniques.........................2047.7 References .......................................................................207ixxContentsCHAPTER 8 Surface topography characterisation ...............................
2118.1 Introduction to surface topography characterisation.............. 2118.2 Surface profile characterisation .......................................... 2128.2.1 Evaluation length .................................................. 2138.2.2 Total traverse length .............................................. 2138.2.3 Profile filtering ......................................................2138.2.3.1 Primary profile .......................................... 2158.2.3.2 Roughness profile......................................
2158.2.3.3 Waviness profile ........................................ 2168.2.4 Default values for profile characterisation ................ 2168.2.5 Profile characterisation and parameters ................... 2168.2.5.1 Profile parameter symbols .......................... 2178.2.5.2 Profile parameter ambiguities..................... 2178.2.6 Amplitude profile parameters (peak to valley)...........2188.2.6.1 Maximum profile peak height, Rp ...............
2188.2.6.2 Maximum profile valley depth, Rv ............... 2188.2.6.3 Maximum height of the profile, Rz .............. 2188.2.6.4 Mean height of the profileelements, Rc ............................................ 2198.2.6.5 Total height of the surface, Rt ....................2198.2.7 Amplitude parameters (average of ordinates)............ 2198.2.7.1 Arithmetical mean deviation of theassessed profile, Ra................................... 2198.2.7.2 The root mean square deviation of theassessed profile, Rq ..................................
2218.2.7.3 Skewness of the assessed profile, Rsk ......... 2228.2.7.4 Kurtosis of the assessed profile, Rku...........2238.2.8 Spacing parameters ............................................... 2248.2.8.1 Mean width of the profile elements,RSm ........................................................ 2248.2.9 Curves and related parameters................................ 2248.2.9.1 Material ratio of the profile......................... 2248.2.9.2 Material ratio curve ................................... 2258.2.9.3 Profile section height difference, Rdc.......... 2268.2.9.4 Relative material ratio, Rmr .......................
2268.2.9.5 Profile height amplitude curve....................2268.2.10 Profile specification standards ................................ 2278.3 Areal surface texture characterisation ................................. 2298.3.1 Scale-limited surface ............................................... 2298.3.2 Areal filtering ..........................................................2308.3.3 Areal specification standards ....................................
2328.3.4 Unified coordinate system for surface textureand form................................................................. 2348.3.5 Areal parameters ..................................................... 235Contents8.3.6 Field parameters .....................................................2358.3.6.1 Areal height parameters...............................2368.3.6.1.1 The root mean square valueof the ordinates, Sq .....................2368.3.6.1.2 The arithmetic mean of theabsolute height, Sa ......................2368.3.6.1.3 Skewness of topography heightdistribution, Ssk ..........................2368.3.6.1.4 Kurtosis of topography heightdistribution, Sku..........................2368.3.6.1.5 The maximum surface peakheight, Sp ...................................2378.3.6.1.6 The maximum pit height of thesurface, Sv..................................2378.3.6.1.7 Maximum height of thesurface, Sz..................................2378.3.6.2 Areal spacing parameters.............................2378.3.6.2.1 The auto-correlation length, Sal ....2378.3.6.2.2 Texture aspect ratio of thesurface, Str .................................2388.3.6.3 Areal hybrid parameters...............................2388.3.6.3.1 Root mean square gradient of thescale-limited surface, Sdq ............2388.3.6.3.2 Developed interfacial area ratioof the scale-limited surface, Sdr ...2398.3.6.4 Functions and related parameters.................2398.3.6.4.1 Areal material ratio of the scalelimited surface ............................2398.3.6.4.2 Areal material ratio of thescale-limited surface, Smc(c) .......2398.3.6.4.3 Inverse areal material ratio of thescale-limited surface, Sdc(mr) ......2398.3.6.4.4 Areal parameters for stratifiedfunctional surfaces of scalelimited surfaces...........................2408.3.6.4.5 Void volume, Vv(mr).....................2418.3.6.4.6 Material volume, Vm(mr) ..............2418.3.6.4.7 Peak extreme height, Sxp .............2418.3.6.4.8 Gradient density function .............2428.3.6.5 Miscellaneous parameters............................2428.3.6.5.1 Texture direction of thescale-limited surface, Std.............2428.3.7 Feature characterisation ...........................................2438.3.7.1 Step 1 – Texture feature selection ................243xixiiContents8.3.7.2 Step 2 – Segmentation ................................
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