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The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3^rd and 1^st centuries BCE. The dispersed Jws had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions of their Scriptures. Throughout the Middle Ages, Latin was the “lingua franca” of the western learned world. The 9^th century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular Anglo-Saxon translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History and Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy. Meanwhile the Christian Church frowned on even partial adaptations of the standard Latin Bible, St.Jerome's Vulgate. In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly-invented block printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render. Large-scale efforts at translation were undertaken by the Arabs. Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, some translations of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Cordoba in Spain. Such Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science would help advance the development of European Scholasticism. The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language. The first fine translation into English were made by England's first great poet, the 14^th century Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tale and Troilus and Criseyde; began a translation of the French language Roman de la Rose; and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin. Chaucer founded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier-established literary languages. The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible, which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15^th century would the great age of English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory's Le Morte Darthur – an adaptation of Arthurian ramances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament (1525), which would influence the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners' version of Jean Froissart's Chronicles (1523-25). Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de' Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Plato's works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus' Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus. The Elizabethan period of translation saw considerable progress beyond mere paraphrase toward an ideal of stylistic equivalence, but even to the end of this period – which actually reached to the middle of the 17^th century – there was no concern for verbal accuracy. In the second half of the 17^th century, the poet John Dryden sought to make Virgil speak “in words such as he would probably have written if he were living and an Englishman”. Dryden, however, discerned no need to emulate the Roman port's subtlety and concision. Similarly, Homer suffered from Alexander Pope's endeavor to reduce the greek poet's “wild paradise” to order. Throughout the 18^th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that text should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or – as in the case of James Macpherson's “translations” of Ossian – from texts that were actually of the “translator's” own composition. The 19^th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M.Cohen, the policy became “the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text”, except for any bawdy passages and the addition of copious explanotory footnotes. In regard to style, the Victorians' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period. Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859), which achieved its Oriental Flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original. In advance of the 20^th century, a new pattern was set in 1871 by Benjamin Jowett, who translated Plato into simple, straightforward language. Jowett's example was not followed, however, until well into the new century, when accuracy rather than style became the principal criterion.

History of theory

Discussions of the theory and practice of translation reach back into antiquity and show remarkable continuities. The distinction that had been drawn by the ancient Greeks between "metaphrase" ("literal" translation) and "paraphrase" would be adopted by the English poet and translator John Dryden (1631-1700), who represented translation as the judicious blending of these two modes of phrasing when selecting, in the target language, "counterparts," or equivalents, for the expressions used in the source language: When [words] appear... literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since... what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author's words: 'tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense. Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation," i.e. of adapted translation: "When a painter copies from the life... he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments..." This general formulation of the central concept of translation — equivalence — is probably as adequate as any that has been proposed ever since Cicero and Horace, in first-century-BCE Rome, famously and literally cautioned against translating "word for word" ("verbum pro verbo"). Despite occasional theoretical diversities, the actual practice of translators has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents — "literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary — for the original meaning and other crucial "values" (e.g., style, verse form, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context. In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order — when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languages (e.g., English, French, German) and "free-word-order" languages (e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard. When a target language has lacked terms that are found in a source language, translators have borrowed them, thereby enriching the target language. Thanks in great measure to the exchange of calques and loanwords between languages, and to their importation from other languages, there are few concepts that are "untranslatable" among the modern European languages. In general, the greater the contact and exchange that has existed between two languages, or between both and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating between them. However, due to shifts in "ecological niches" of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. The English "actual," for example, should not be confused with the cognate French "actuel" (meaning "present," "current") or the Polish "aktualny" ("present," "current"). The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, Roman adapter of Greek comedies, in the second century BCE. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive and mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics as early as Cicero. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnson's remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon. If translation be an art, it is no easy one. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both languages, as well as the science that he is to translate; and finding that few translators did, he wanted to do away with translation and translators altogether. The first European to assume that one translates satisfactorily only toward his own language may have been Martin Luther, translator of the Bible into German. According to L.G. Kelly, since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one works only toward his own language.Compounding these demands upon the translator is the fact that not even the most complete dictionary or thesaurus can ever be a fully adequate guide in translation. Alexander Tytler, in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but also including listening to the spoken language, had earlier been made in 1783 by Onufry Andrzej Kopczyński, member of Poland's Society for Elementary Books, who was called "the last Latin poet." The special role of the translator in society was well described in an essay, published posthumously in 1803, by Ignacy Krasicki – “Poland's La Fontaine”, Primate of Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and translator from French and Greek: Translation… is in fact an art both estimable and very difficult, and therefore is not the labor and portion of common minds; It should be practiced by those who are themselves capable of being actors, when they see greater use in translating the works of others than in their own works, and hold higher than their own glory the service that they render to their country.

Development of the theory of translation in the twentieth century

Modern Western Schools of translation theory and translation After World War II, science and technology, linguistics and translation undertakings flourish, machine translation is quietly rising. People's views on translation also will be changed. Translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science, and literature and art, sociology, psychology, information theory and the theory NC, and other related disciplines but their own systems science. Translation theory studies, is no longer confined to philosophers, writers and translators, language and translation to become an expert in the study of systems of the serious issue. Therefore, the translation of Western theory further development. Modern Western translation theory in the development of two major characteristics: (1) theoretical research into linguistics areas, the modern linguistics and the impact of information theory, and thus the obvious color of linguistics, and the traditional theory of literary translation in stark contrast; (2) In the past theorists behind closed doors, not contact with the situation be broken. On the theorists through, magazines, essays, etc., fully express their views. In addition, as means of transportation, publishing industry and the progress of the emergence of international academic organizations, countries translation theorists keep close contacts between the academic exchanges have been strengthened. Modern Western translation theory there are four main schools: Prague faction, London faction, the United States sent structure and Communication Theory camp. The founder of the School for Mahi Hughes (Vilem Mathesius), the Kuwaiti and Iraqi Telubeishi (Nikolay S. Trubetskoy) and Accor may Dobson (Roman Jakobson). AGB could be key members of Dobson, Levy, Victoria, such as the translation of important theorist. The school's main arguments: (1) must be taken into account language translation of a variety of functions, including cognitive function, the expression of features and tools, such as functional (2) must attach importance to language translation of comparison, including the semantics, grammar, voice, language, style as well as literary genre comparisons. Prague School of the most influential theorists are Luomanya can translate Dobson. He origin Russia, the Czech Republic after resettlement; moved to the United States during World War II, joining American. As one of the founders of the school, his main contribution to the theory of translation reflected in the "On the translation of Linguistics" (On Linguistic Aspects of Translation) are. Articles from the perspective of linguistics, translation of the importance of the relationship between language and translation, as well as the existing problems are brilliant expositions. Since 1959 after the publication of this article has been Western theoretical circles as a translation of the classic. Accor Dobson can be discussed five major points: (1) Translation divided into three categories: language, translation (intralingual translation), the Inter-translation (interlingual translation), and at the occasion of translation (intersemiotic translation). Within the so-called language translation, refers to the same language used in some language other symbols to explain the language symbols, which are usually "change that" (rewording). The so-called inter-language translation refers to two languages in one language that is the sign to explain the symbols in another language, that is, the translation of the strict sense. At the occasion of the so-called translation, refers to non-verbal symbol system explained linguistic symbols, or using symbols to explain non-verbal language symbols, such as the Qiyu words or gestures become. (2) Meaning depends on the understanding of translation. He said that in language learning and linguistic understanding of the process of translation played a decisive role. (3) Accurate information on the translation symmetry. Translation is involved in two different languages on the website, and other information. (4) All languages have the same ability. If the language in vocabulary insufficient, it will be adopted by the word coinage or interpretation of the language, and other methods for processing. (5) Translation Grammar area is the most complex issue. This is the presence of state, and a few, such as changes in the form of the language syntax, especially complex. United Kingdom London School is a school with the language, language that is the significance of the use of language from the social environment (the social context of situation) decision. In the field of translation studies, translation and the original wording of the same depends on whether they used the same language environment. London School of the founder of the Fox (JR Firth). Two articles focus reflects the translation of theory, a "Linguistics and Translation" (Linguistics and Translation) and the other one as "linguistic analysis and translation" (Linguistic Analysis and Translation). Falls focused on the following three areas: (1) language analysis is the basis of translation (2) translation does not mean completely perfect translation; (3) in any two languages in the translation, a certain sense of language means of expression, such as it is impossible to totally another language. Catford (John Catford) is the school system in comparison to the theory of translation scholars. Teaches at the University of Edinburgh Catford 1965 published "translation Linguistic Theory" (A Linguistic Theory of Translation) a book for translation theory developing new channels, caused a huge reaction. Catford theory called "descriptive" of translation theory. He translated from the nature, type, and so on, conversion, such as limits explain "what is the translation of the" The central issue. (1) The nature of translation. Translation is "a language of the (former) that the text materials into another language (target language), such as the text of the material." (2) Translation category. On its extent, can be divided into "translation of the full text of" (full translation) and "partially translated" (partial translation); level on the terms of their language, can be divided into "complete translation" (total translation) and "limited Translation" ( restricted translation); on the registration of language structure, can be divided into "restricted class" of translation and the "unlimited class" translation, namely the traditional sense, "a verbatim translation" and the "translation" and "literal translation" between the two between. (3) The translation of the problems. On the one hand, and so is a translation of the experience as the basis to the phenomenon is based on a comparison of the two languages and discovered the other hand, such as the translation of a text and asked to see whether the same or part of the same substantive characteristics. (4) Translation conversion refers to the original form of a deviation from the corresponding asked. Translation conversion level conversion and are divided into areas of conversion, which conversion can be divided into areas of structural transformation, parts of speech conversion, unit conversion and four within the system conversion. (5) Translation of the limits is that Untranslatability issues. There are two types of translation in the untranslatability. First, the language of Untranslatability phenomenon Puns, superoxide Italy grammatical structure; Second, the cultural untranslatability is due to the different social customs, different era background, and other non-language factors. Structure of the United States is the language school representative cloth dragon Rumsfeld. He made an act of semantic analysis, that means that the stimulus and response between the existence of language relations. In the 1950s, cloth-Rumsfeld Chomsky's theory of the transformation of production replaced by the theory. Jiaozhi theory has three viewpoints: (1) human language ability is innate; (2) Language is unencumbered by the rules; (3) surface structure and language, including deep structure. The theory of translation studies in the major impact on the surface structure and its deep structure on. Mainly lies in the different languages of the respective different surface structures, and deep structure is a common feature. Linguistic theory in the above under the influence, creating Wozhelin (CF Voegelin), Bo Ling grid (D. Bolinger), Katz (JJ Katz), Kuien (WV Quine) and Nida (EU Nida), represented Translation Theory sector of the United States of the school structure, and to Nida's most outstanding. Nida Communication is the representative of translation theory. His translation theory can be summarized as the following six aspects: (1) the theoretical principles. All languages have the same ability, and the primary task is to translate that readers can be asked at a glance. (2) The nature of translation. According to Nida's the definition of "so-called translation, refers to the style from the semantic (style) in the target language using the most natural reproduction of the original language, such as the phrase information." Three of them are the key: First, "in accord with the natural," I can not have translation cavity; second is the "natural" choice on the basis of the closest to the original meaning and asked the third is a "reciprocal", this is the core. Therefore, the translation must meet four criteria: (a) to express (b) and vivid; (c) natural language English and (d) similar to the reader responses. (3) Translation function. From the social linguistics and language communication function standpoint, Nida that must be translated for readers service targets. (4) The correct translation. Translation: correct depends on to what extent the readers can understand correctly asked. (5) Semantic analysis. One of the important process of translation of the original is a semantic analysis. Semantics can be divided into three types: grammatical meaning, the meaning and significance of connotations. (6) The procedures and methods of translation. In his view, the entire translation process is divided into four steps: analysis, interpretation, Reorganization (language translation by the rules of re-organization asked) and examined. Since the 1980s, the translation of theory Nida a larger change. The main new viewpoints: (1) Translation is not science, but technology; (2) Translation can be born; (3) translation is not only a language communicative activities, but also a symbol of social interaction (sociosemiotic interaction) activities. In addition, there are more representative of Germany's Leipzig School and the former Soviet Union, such as schools. In short, the 20th century theory of the development of the West's largest translation feature is included in translation studies linguistics, comparative linguistics and applied linguistics and semantics, and other established intrinsically linked. Although the western translation theory has achieved tremendous successes, but they are in the tradition of succession on the basis of, and did not form a complete, universal theoretical system.

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