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In social research, observation can also be used to collect data. Observation is a method of direct recording of social events and conditions under which they take place. Its advantages are as follows: it allows to record events and elements of human behaviour at the moment they take place; the researcher doesn’t depend on the object of research, he can collect facts, no matter whether or not individuals or groups are willing to respond or able to answer. However, it means some subjectivism as the observer is closely connected with the object of observation and it affects how the observer perceives social reality and interprets the essence of the observed phenomena.
Due to its character, observation can be standardized when a researcher focuses his attention on pre-arranged phenomena most significant for characterizing the situation under study, and non-standardized when such elements are not arranged beforehand.
Due to the observer’s position with regard to the object of research, two forms of observation are differentiated: participant and non-participant. Observation is participant when a researcher is inside the study object. He usually decides beforehand what particular activities are to be observed and recorded, and even the form of the record. Participant observation allows the observer to become an “insider”because he directly participates in the study population’s activities. This permits an understanding of the study population and their activities from their own perspective. Participant can make observation either incognito when the group doesn’t know the aims and objectives of the research or open when the group knows this.
Participant observation has been a major research strategy in anthropology. A classical example is an American sociologist W. Whyte who lived in the block of houses with Italian migrants in one of American cities learning their relations, customs, language, their adaptation to a new culture etc. Another known example is a Russian anthropologist N. Miklukho-Maklai who went to Papua Guinea to learn the indigenous population there.
In non-participant observation, the observer remains separate from his study population’s activities, and attempts to be unobtrusive.
Information on particular social problems may also be available from a variety of documents of official, historical, anthropological, or other character. Analysis of documents is used at every stage of a research: to study a problem situation, to give a comprehensive analysis of the object and its interpretation etc.
A document in sociology is any sign or graphic information fixed by people on any material carrier, for instance, any printed or typed text, pictures, photo - and video-recordings, CDs etc. These important sources of written information may shed light on a community, its history, and patterns of human behaviour, values, norms etc.
Documents are classified according to different criteria: according to their status, documents can be non-official such as private letters, diaries and any documents created by individuals on their own initiative, and official such as documents of various organizations; according to their character, they are primary if created by the author on his own experience, and secondary if created on generalization of primary documents.
To analyze documents sociologists use both non-formalized or qualitative, and formalized or qualitative-quantitative methods. Qualitative analysis means reading documents and interpreting their contents with general logic operations. To avoid subjectivism that may be caused by the investigator’s knowledge, abilities, ideological position etc. while interpreting documents, content-analysis is used. Content-analysis is a formalized method by which the information is transferred into definite quantitative parameters for further interpretation.
Unlike other methods, experiment is seldom used in sociology. Experiments are carefully designed situations, in which a researcher studies the impact of certain variables on the people’s attitudes or behaviour. Experiments may occur in either laboratory or natural setting. In a laboratory experiment, people are studied in a closed setting, so researchers can maintain as much control as possible over the research. Natural experiments are real-life occurrences that provide research conditions such as natural disasters, war or other social trouble.
Experiments require that people should be divided into two groups: an experimental and control group. Members of the groups are matched for similar characteristics to make comparisons between the groups. The experimental group contains people who are exposed to an independent variable (the experimental condition) to study its effect on them. The control group contains people who are not exposed to the independent variable. The experimental and control groups are compared to see whether they differ in relation to the dependent variable, and the hypothesis about the relationship of two variables is confirmed or rejected.
One of the problems that may arise from experiments is reactivity, the tendency of people to change their behaviour in response to the presence of the researcher or to the fact that they know they are being studied.
Experiments have their strengths and weaknesses. The major strength of the controlled experiment is the researcher’s control over the environment and the ability to isolate the experimental variable. Perhaps, the greatest limitation of experiments is that they are artificial. Social processes that occur in a laboratory setting often do not occur in the same way in other settings.
BASIC CONCEPTS
Aim – the final result a researcher wants to get.
Alternative question – a question which supposes to choose only “yes”or “no”answers.
Analysis of documents – an analysis of documents to study a problem situation, to give a comprehensive analysis of the object and its interpretation etc.
Analytical ASR – the deepest type of an applied sociological research which is both to describe structural elements of the study phenomenon and find out causes affecting its character and specificity.
Applied sociological research (ASR) – a sociological research which is carried out to solve a particular social problem.
Closed question – a question when a respondent is provided with some alternatives.
Content-analysis – a formalized (qualitative-quantitative) method to analyze documents by which the information is transferred into definite quantitative parameters for further interpretation.
Descriptive ASR – an applied sociological research which is to get empiric data enabling to make up an integral presentation of a study phenomenon and its structural elements.
Experiment – a carefully designed situation in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on people’s attitudes or behaviour.
Expert survey – a survey form conducted to have expertise on the issue, that’s why people who are competent in a definite area of knowledge or practice are invited as its respondents.
Fundament sociological research – a sociological research which is carried out to get new knowledge.
General sample – the number of units with a common feature attributing them to the analyzed entity.
Hypothesis – a statement of the relationship between two or more concepts, the object’s structure, or possible ways to solve a problem.
Incognito participant observation – participant observation when the study group doesn’t know the aims and objectives of the research.
Instant ASR – an applied sociological research which provides information about the state of an object and its characteristics at the moment of its study, or in statics.
Interviewing – a data-collection encounter in which an interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answers.
Menu question – a question when a respondent can choose any combination of answers.
Methodological part – part of a research design which is to show what is studied (problem, aims and objectives, object and subject of research, hypotheses, basis conceptions etc).
Non-formalized analysis of documents – a qualitative method to analyze documents which means reading documents and interpreting their contents with general logic operations.
Non-standardized interview – a flexible format when an interviewer asks questions from a standardized questionnaire and his task is to record a respondent’s answers in the exact way.
Non-standardized observation – observation when a researcher does not arrange the study phenomena beforehand.
Objective – a totality of definite purposeful orientations which provide additional requirements to analyzing and solving the problem.
Observation – a method of direct recording of social events and conditions under which they take place.
Open-ended question – a question when a respondent himself formulates the answer.
Open participant observation – participant observation when the study group knows the aims and objectives of the research.
Participant observation – observation when a researcher is inside the study object.
Pilot ASR – an applied sociological research which is to check up how a basic ASR is prepared.
Problem situation – a contradiction between knowledge of people’s needs in some actions and lack of ways, methods and means of realizing such actions.
Proceeding part – part of a research design which is to show how to study (applied methods, sample etc).
Random sample – the number of units from a general sample that a researcher is to put under study.
Reliability – the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results when applied to different individuals at one time or to the same individuals over time.
Repeated ASR – a study of one and the same object or objects carried out over a period of time or at several different points in time under same or different conditions, or in dynamics.
Research design – a part of an ASR which gives theoretic grounds for methodological approaches, methods and techniques of learning the object and subject of research; it consists of methodological and proceeding sections.
Respondent – a person who provides data for analysis.
Questionnaire – a method of data collection with a questionnaire form as a printed research instrument containing a series of items for respondents to answer.
Scale question – a question when a respondent checks a scale (of incidence, preference, or quantity) of 0-5 (1-10 etc).
Semi-closed question – a question when a respondent is provided with alternatives and given a chance to express his own opinion on the issue.
Social monitoring – an integral system of getting social information about the phenomena and processes taking place in the society; it is designed to fix, keep and make primary analysis of the obtained data.
Sociological monitoring – an integral system to monitor changes taking place in the society, which is based on study and analysis of mass conceptions about these changes.
Sociometric survey – a survey form used in small social groups to discover interpersonal relationships between group members by fixing preferences, likings, dislikings etc.
Standardized interview – a closed form consisting of pre-arranged questions and answers.
Standardized observation – observation when a researcher focuses his attention on pre-arranged phenomena most significant for characterizing the situation under study.
Statistical monitoring – a system of getting quantitative characteristics (statistical indices, parameters, coefficients etc) of different sides of the society.
Survey – a poll in which researchers gather facts applying to respondents whose verbal statements are a source of information.
Validity – the extent to which a study or research instrument accurately measures what it is supposed to measure.
Variable – a concept with measurable traits or characteristics that can change or vary from one person (time, situation, or society) to another.
Additional literature
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Blau P. Exchange and Power in Social Life. (3rd edition). – New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers, 1992. – 354 p.
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Bourdeiu P. Logic of Practice. – Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990. – 382 p.
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Coser L. The Functions of Social Conflict. – Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1956. – 188 p.
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Durkheim E. The Division of Labour in Society. – New York, NY: Free Press; 1997. – 272 p.
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Durkheim E. Suicide. – New York, NY: Free Press; 1951. – 345 p.
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