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Окна гостиной выходили на балкон, с которого был виден сад.

She tried to tranquillize him by reading aloud. (Gaskell)

Она пыталась успокоить его тем, что читала ему вслух.

Not to disquiet his sister, he had said nothing to her of the matter. (Hardy)

Чтобы не встревожить сестру, он ничего не сказал ей об этом.

(c) in predicative constructions.

My mistress being dead..., I had to look out for a new place.

(Ch. Bronte)

Так как моя хозяйка умерла, мне пришлось искать другое место.

There is no mistake about his being a genius. (Shaw)

Не может быть никакого сомнения в том, что он — гений.

She heard him unbar the door and go out into the yard. (Hardy)

Она слышала, как он отодвинул засов и вышел во двор.

2.1.2 The Infinitive

The infinitive representing an action in its most general form is often treated as an initial form of the verb⁰, but from the point of view of some linguists⁰ the infinitive developed from the "Verbal noun,' which in course of time became verbalized, retaining at the same time some of its nominal properties. Thus in Modern English the infinitive, like the participle and the gerund, has a double nature, nominal and verbal.

1. The nominal character of the infinitive is manifested in its syntactic functions. The infinitive can be used:

(a) as the subject of a sentence.

To go on like this was dangerous. (Galsworthy)

(b) as a predicative.

Her plan was now to drive to Bath during the night. (Hardy)

(c) as an object.

I have never learnt to read or write. (Collins)

2. The verbal characteristics of the infinitive are as follows:

(a) the infinitive of transitive verbs can take a direct object.

He ... began to feel some curiosity ... (Eliot)

(b) the infinitive can be modified by an adverb.

I cannot write so quickly.

(c) the infinitive has tense and aspect distinctions; the infinitive of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions.

In Modern English the infinitive has the following forms:

	Active	Passive
Indefinite	to write	to be written
Continuous	to be writing	to be being written0
Perfect	to have written	to have been written
Perfect Continuous	to have been writing	to have been being written0

The tense and aspect distinctions of the infinitive.

Like the tense distinctions of all verbals those of the infinitive are not absolute but relative.

1. The Indefinite Infinitive expresses an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb, so it may refer to the present, past or future.

I am glad to meet you. (Dreiser)

I was glad to see Mr. Paul. (Ch. Bronte)

Mr. Forsyte will be very glad to see you. (Galsworthy)

2. The Continuous Infinitive also denotes an action simultaneous with that expressed by the finite verb, but it is an action in progress. Thus the continuous infinitive is not only a tense form, but also an aspect form, expressing both time relations and the manner in which the action is presented.

They happened, at the moment, to be standing near a small conservatory at the end of the garden. (Collins)

В этот момент они как раз стояли около небольшой оранжереи в конце сада.

3. The Perfect Infinitive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.

"I'm glad to have seen you," he said. (Dreiser)

«Я рад, что повидал вас», — сказал он.

An intimate friend is said to have dined with him that day. (Hardy)

Говорят, что в этот день у него обедал его близкий друг.

After such verbs as to mean, to expect, to intend, to hope used in the Past Indefinite, the Perfect Infinitive shows that the hope or intention was not carried out.

I meant to have gone there.

Я собирался пойти туда (но не пошел).

I meant to have given you five shillings this morning for a Christmas-box, Sam. I'll give it you this afternoon, Sam. (Dickens)

Я хотел подарить вам пять шиллингов на рождество, Сэм; я подарю их вам сегодня, Сэм.

The same meaning can be conveyed by the Past Perfect of the finite verb followed by the Indefinite Infinitive.

I had meant to go there.

He had meant to marry me. (Eliot)

Он имел намерение жениться на мне.

Some English grammarians prefer the latter construction.

Note. — The idea, however, is often expressed in the following way: I meant to go there, but never did.

4. The Perfect Continuous Infinitive denotes an action which lasted a certain time before the action of the finite verb. It is not only a tense form, but also an aspect form.

For about ten days we seemed to have been living on nothing but cold meat, cake and bread and jam. (Jerome)

Дней десять мы, казалось, питались только холодным мясом, печеньем и хлебом с вареньем.

The voice distinctions of the infinitive.

The infinitive of transitive verbs has special forms for the Active and the Passive Voice:

It is so glorious to love and to be loved... (Stone)

Так прекрасно любить и быть любимым.

In sentences with the construction there is the infinitive of some verbs can be active or passive without any change in the meaning:

There's no time to lose. (Dreiser)

There is no time to be lost. (Eliot)

There is nothing to fear (to be feared).

The use of the infinitive without the particle to (the bare infinitive).

In Modern English the infinitive is chiefly used with the particle to⁰. In Old English to was a preposition used with the infinitive in the dative case to indicate purpose (to writenne meant 'in order to write'). Later on to was re-interpreted as the formal sign of the infinitive and came to be used not only to denote purpose but in other cases as well. Still there are cases when the so-called bare infinitive (the infinitive without the particle to) is used.⁰ They are as follows:

1. After auxiliary verbs.

I don't understand the meaning of this passage.

We shall go there at once.

2. After modal verbs except the verb ought.

If one cannot have what one loves, one must love what one has (Wilson)

3. After verbs denoting sense perception, such as to hear, to see, to feel etc.

In a few minutes they heard him ascend the ladder to his own room. (Hardy)

Через несколько минут они услышали, что он поднимается но лестнице в свою комнату.

I never saw, you look so before. (Hardy)

Я никогда не видел, чтобы вы так хорошо выглядели.

I felt my heart jump. (Heym)

Я почувствовал, что у меня ёкнуло сердце.

The verb to be after the verb to feel is used with the particle to: I felt this to be very true.

(Dickens) Я чувствовал, что это совершенно верно.

4. After the verb to let.

Let us be the best friends in the world! (Dickens)

5. After the verb “to make” in the meaning of 'заставлять' and the verb “to have” in the meaning of 'заставлять, допускать, велеть'.

What makes you think so? (Carter)

Что заставляет вас так думать?

I... had them take my baggage. (Hemingway)

Я... велел им взять мой багаж.

The verb to have in the meaning of 'допускать' is chiefly used after the modal verbs will and would in negative sentences.

I will not have you call him Daniel any more. (Trollope)

Я не допущу, чтобы вы продолжали называть его Даниэлем.

1 would not have you think that I am selfish. (Trollope)

Я не допущу, чтобы вы считали меня эгоистом.

6. After the verb to know when its meaning approaches that of to see, to observe (the verb to know never has this meaning in the Present Indefinite).

I have so often known a change of medicine work wonders. (Shaw)

Я так часто замечала, что перемена лекарства творит чудеса.

In this case, however, the particle to is sometimes used:

I have never known her to weep before. (Cronin)

Я никогда, раньше не видел, чтобы она плакала.

After the verbs ‘to hear’, ‘to see’, ‘to make’ and ‘to know’ in the Passive Voice the to-Infinitive is used.

He was heard to mention your name several times.

Слышали, как он несколько раз упомянул ваше имя.

They were seen to leave the house early in the morning.

Видели, что они рано утром вышли из дома.

The child was made to obey.

Ребенка заставили слушаться.

Sir Pitt Crawley was never known to give away a shilling or to do a good action.

Никто никогда не видел, чтобы сэр Питт Кроули дал кому-нибудь шиллинг или сделал доброе дело.

7. After the verb to bid.

I bowed and waited, thinking she would bid me take a seat. (E. Bronte)

Я поклонился и подождал, думая, что она предложит мне сесть.

The verb to bid is obsolete and is not used in colloquial speech.

8. After the expressions had better, would rather, would sooner, cannot but, nothing but, cannot choose but.

You had better go to bed and leave the patient to me. (Shaw)

Вы бы лучше легли спать и оставили пациента на моем попечении.

I would rather not speak upon the subject. (Hardy),

Я бы предпочел не говорить на эту тему.

I would sooner die here, .at your feet ... than see you married to such a one as that. (Trollope)

Я предпочел бы умереть здесь, у ваших ног ..., чем видеть вас замужем за таким человеком.

1 cannot but think so. (Trollope)

Я не могу не думать так.

There was nothing left for him to do but watch and wait.

Единственное, что ему оставалось, — это наблюдать и ждать.

She does nothing but make scenes from morning till night. (Shaw)

Она только и делает, что устраивает сцены с утра до ночи.

I looked long at that picture, and could not choose but look. (Ch. Bronte)

Я долго смотрела на эту картину и не могла не смотреть на нее.

‘Had better’, ‘would rather’, ‘to do nothing but’ belong to colloquial English, whereas cannot but and cannot choose but are characteristic of elevated style.

9. In sentences of a special type (infinitive sentences) beginning with why.

Why not come and talk to her yourself? (Reade)

Почему бы нам самой не прийти поговорить с ней?

The particle to is often used without the infinitive if it is easily understood from the context.

He and his three men could not defend Rollingen even if they wanted to. (Heym)

Он и трое его солдат не могли бы оборонять Роллинген, даже если бы захотели.

The particle ‘to’ may be separated from the infinitive by an adverb; this is the so-called split infinitive. It is hardly ever used in colloquial English.

He was unable, however, to long keep silence. (Galsworthy)

Он был, однако, не в состоянии долго молчать.

2.1.3 General Characteristics of Participles

The participle is a non-finite form of the verb which has a verbal and an adjectival or an adverbial character.⁰

There are two participles in English — Participle I and Participle II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the Past Participle.

These traditional terms are open to objection on the ground that Participle I does not necessarily refer to the present, just as Participle II need not refer to the past. The difference between them is not a difference in tense, but chiefly a difference in voice.

Participle I is formed by adding the suffix -ing⁰ to the stem of the verb; the following spelling rules should be observed:

(a) If a verb ends in a mute e, the mute e is dropped before adding the suffix -ing: to give — giving, to close — closing.

(b) If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a vowel rendering a short stressed sound, the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix -ing: to run — running, to forget — forgetting, to admit— admitting.

A final l is doubled if it is preceded by a vowel letter rendering a short vowel sound, stressed or unstressed: to expel—expelling, to travel — travelling.

(c) The verbs to die, to lie and to tie form Participle I in the following way: dying, lying, tying.

A final у is not changed before adding the suffix -ing: to comply — complying, to deny — denying.

The formation of Participle II.

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