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e.g.: TO-MORROW
«Where art thou, beloved To-morrow?
When young and old, and strong and weak,
rich and poor, trough joy and sorrow,
Thy sweet smiles we ever seek,-
In thy place-ah! well-A0DAY1
We find the thing we fled-To-day.»
(P.B. Shelly, 1792–1816,17, p. 57)
«O heart of man! canst thou not be Blithe as the air is, and as free?»
(H.W. Longfellow, 1807–1892,17, p. 142)
«Old Yew, which graspest at the stones
That name the under-lying dead,
Thy fibres net the dreamless head,
Thy roots are wrapt about the bones.»
(A. Tennyson, 1809–1892, 1/, p. 182)
«The Spanish people will rise again as they have always risen before against tyranny.
The dead do not need to rise. They are a part of the earth now and the earth can never be conquered. For the earth endures forever. It will outlive all systems of tyranny».
(B. Hemingway, 1899–1961,19,67)
«…Doubting Charley! Who trust nobody and believes nothing.
But even Charley can’t deny that Sam’s dead. He’s dead.
When thou know’st how dry a cinder this world is:»
(R. Hill, published in 2002, l, p. 62)
A lot of Shakespearisms are used in Modern English which are described by A.V. Kunin in his book The Course of Phraseology of Modern English». A.N. Morokhovsky lines out some phraseological units as arkhaisms; be at accord with somebody = agree to smb.;
play upon advantage = to deceive;
at adventure = at random;
at fortune’s alms = as charity of a fate;
all and some = separately and together.
Numerous archaisms can be found in Shakespeare, but it should be taken into consideration that what appear to us today as archaisms in the works of Shakespeare, are in fact examples of everyday language of Shakespeare’s time.
The use of archaic variant forms in fiction, for instance, in historical novels, serves to characterize the speech of those times, reproduce its atmosphere, its «couleur historique» (historic colour). As we have researched numerous archaic forms can be found in poetry XVII–XIX, XX centuries: G.G. Byron, W. Wordsworth, P. Shelly, H.W. Longfellow, A. Tennyson; in prose written by E. Hemingway, R. Hill and others. For those students who want to continue to research this aspect of Linguistics there are a lot of unresolved points.
2. Popular language as a free and easy every-day speech
Acceding to Table 12 «Transposition with functional-stylistic characters» the next aspect of our analysis is «Popular language as a free-and-easy every-day speech ».
I.V. Arnold writes in her monograph that authors use this phenomenon for stylistic purposes: to portray the story-teller or hero (personage) when their stories are about past events [4; 156].
Ain’t is a nonstandard contraction commonly (esp in AmE) in place of am not, is not, are not, have not. Aren’t I is widely used, especially in BrE, whereas ain’t I, usually considered nonstandard, is somewhat more current in AmE. Amn’t I is mainly Scottish and Irish.
e.g. «Dear Mr. Pascoe,
Cambridge! St Godric’s College! The Quaestor’s Lodging!
Ain’t I the swell then? Ain’t Home Office commercial for the rehabilitating power of the British penal system?» [Hill Reginal; 1; 13].
There are some illustrations from M. Twain:
e.g. «You don’t know about me, without you have read a book by name of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, but that ain’t no matter…» [10; 21].
e.g. «Stuff! Stealing cattle and such things ain’t robbery, it’s burglaty», says Tom Sawyer. «We ain’t burglars. That ain’t no sort of style…» [10; 21].
e.g. «Well, I knows what I’s gwyne to set down here and listen tell I hears it agin» [10, p. 17].
e.g. «Why couldn’t you said that before?» [10; 22].
e.g. «You git me that money to-morrow- I want it.
– I hain’t dot no money.
– It’s a lie. Judge Thatcher’s got it. You git it. I want it.
– I hain’t got no money, I tell you…» [10; 35].
Note: hain’t = h a v e n o t, h a s n o t.
e.g. «It ain’t my fault I warn’t born a duke, it ain’t your fault you warn’t born a king – so what’s the use to worry?…» [10; 150].
e.g. «The duke done (has done) it, and Jim and me was (sing) pretty glad to see it» [10; 150].
Note: warn’t = will not in the past tense.
e.g. «So, things I, I’ll go and search them (?) rooms… But I see I couldn’t do nothing without a candle, and I dasn’t light one, of course» [10, p. 207].
Ch. Dickens used a lot of the some examples in his novel «Our Mutual Friend»
e.g. «But what you may call the Fates ordered him into it again? Which is rumness, ain’t?…» [5; 422].
e.g. «Mr Riderhood next demands his shirt; and draws it on over his head (with his daughter’s help), exactly as if he had just had a Fight. – «Warn’t it steamer?» he pauses to ask her. – «Yes, father». [5; 424].
e.g. «– Hear me out! «cried Wegg.» – I knew you was a – going to say so. But along I bore the anxiety, and alone I’ll bear the blame!»… [5; 468].
All these quotations present themselves the low colloquial sublanguage. These dialogues (above) may not be exactly like others. Writers prefer to paint their personages in words. A detailed analysis of these non-grammatical speech patterns show that they are elements of a system, which is not deprived of rationality. Substandard English is used by millions of people in English speaking counties. It is a conspicuous indicator of low language culture and educational level. Being introduced into books, it becomes a picturesque means of protagonist’s characterization.
3. Modal verbs and verbal forms with the modal meanings are very important for us to present and use a lot of subtle stylistic connotations in our speech.
The simple modals, such can, may, must, will, should have SINGLE forms, whereas the more complex structures known as PERIPHRASTIC MODALS are formed with the verbs be and have, as in be able to (can, could);
be allowed to (may, might);
be going to (will, would);
be supposed to (shall, should) – (meant, expected, obliged);
have (got) to (must);
to be to (have to according to the plan). [G. Yule. Explaining Grammar, 31, p. 86].
e.g. «Some books are to tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; that is, some books are to be read in parts; others to be read but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention».
[F. Bacon, 46; 156].
«I wonder», said he (Wickham), at the next opportunity of speaking, whether he is likely to be in this country much longer.»
[Jane Austen. Pride and Prejudice, 4; 81].
«One of them at any rate: I (Shirley) do not bargain for less: and she is to appear in some such fashion as this. I am to be walking by myself on deck, rather late of an August evening, watching and being watched by full harvest-moon…»
[Ch. Bronte, Shirley, 11; 145].
«Might she only follow her own judgment, she thought she should be able to find, perhaps a harsh, but effectual cure for her sufferings». [11; 242].
«I asked to be allowed to look at the note of terms which his respectable patron had drawn up for my inspection.» [W. Collins, The Woman in White, 2; 10].
«Why blame it all, we’ve got to do it. Don’t I tell you it’s in the books?»
[M. Twain, 10, p. 21].
«Would you stop complaining about things? We’re supposed to do our best and we should be able to finish this work before the boss has to start screaming at us again. If you could just concentrate on getting finished, we might be allowed to leave early this afternoon. You know he’s not going to let us leave early if we can’t get the work done.
[G. Yule. 31; 86].
Stylistic Potential of the Periphrastic modals in Context
| Modal forms | Meanings | Examples |
| be able to | It is used to convey each of the different kinds of «potential». Difference is in the past tense: the implication is that the actual event took place. Note: can is used at least 10 times more often than be able to. | a) We could repair the old car. b) We were able to repair the old car. |
| be allowed to | «Permission» as a root modality is clearly appropriate when be allowed to occurs with other simple modals. Its interpretation differs from might in the past tense. With might, the interpretation is remote possibility, but with were allowed to, the interpretation is remote fact. | a) Will we be allowed to light the fire? b) Oh, no. You won’t be allowed to play with matches. a) They might have a break after lunch. b) They were allowed to have a break after lunch. |
| have (got) to | There is no past form of «must». Expressions of past necessity are generally presented via the form have to for obligations and conclusions. In the present tense have to can be used in a wider range of constructions than must. As uncontrollable external source that compels an action. More typically found in informal speech have got to is used with the root meaning of obligation. It does not occur with other modal forms. Mustn’t conveys an obligation not to do something, whereas don’t have to means that there is not an obligation to do something. | a) When I was in school, we had to wear school uniform. b) He was really dig, he had to be over 7 feet tall. a) Do we really have to go this meeting? b) Yes, and we will have to present our report. a) Excuse me, but I have to sneeze. a) They’ve got to try harder next time. a) You mustn’t drink beer. b) You don’t have to drink beer. |
| be going to (the immediacy) | It is not used to express the «willingness» associated with «will». The future action is related to the present and will occur soon after the time of speaking. The action with be going to was already planned or decided. CF: I’m gonna be sick (the reduced form of casual speech shown); I will be sick (if I eat any more of this ice cream). | a) I’m going to finish these exercises. b) And I’ll get round to the others later. a) Close your eyes, I’m going to give you surprise. b) Watch out! The monster is going to get you. |
| be supposed to | It is used with a function similar to should in its root sense of weak obligation. This is an implication with be supposed to that the social requirement being mentioned is external to the speaker and may be one that the speaker feels is being ignored. The social obligations are weaker than those marked by should. | a) You’re supposed to be studying, not watching TV. b) I’m not supposed to be laughing about it but it’s very funny. |
Random Quirk [28, p. 137] gives classifying them as: some interesting information about the «The verb of intermediate function»:
1. Central Modals: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will/’ll, would/’d, must.
2. Marginal Modals: dare, need, ought to, used to.
3. Modal Idioms: Had better, would rather / sooner, be to, have got to.
4. Semi-auxiliaries: have to, be about to, be able to, be bound to,
be going to, be obliged to, be supposed to,
be willing to.
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