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It was a three-mile walk along a dry white road, made whiter to-night by the light of the moon. [9]

There is, however, a growing tendency in recent times to use the plural form, especially in long official terms: a two-thirds majority; the food products department; the sports grounds; the United Nations Organization; parcels post.

Two powerful engines were pulling a goods train up the sharp incline… [4]

Streams of people were pouring out from the Sports Ground… [4]

In many instances where the form in – s is used it may be understood either as the plural form of the common case or as the plural possessive. Accordingly, the use of the apostrophe wavers:

a) No apostrophe:

I enjoyed several hours sleep. There is twenty years difference in their age. I had only two shillings pocket money. A bridge of only two planks breadth.

b) An apostrophe:

A five years' child. The Seven Years’ War. A two months' baby.

…it was a two-and-a half hours' drive. [21]

5. Plural Identical in Form With the Singular. – Some nouns have one form for both singular and plural (either always or in certain combinations).

Those nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged plurals.

The following nouns have one form for both singular and plural:

a) Names of some animals: sheep, deer, swine:

… The sheep on the Downs lay quiet as stones. [21] 'Oh, Elizabeth, look, look! The deer!' '…Oh yes! How funny the little ones are! But how graceful!' [20]

b) The noun fish and nouns denoting some sorts of fish, such as trout, cod, pike, salmon:

One day he caught a beautiful big fish… [11] In the water tiny fish swam between the olive growths of seaweed… [8] I know where trout are rising and where the salmon leap. [24]

To denote kinds of fish the form fishes is used:

There were many fishes in the net. She has bought a large book on our freshwater fishes. These pools swarm with a great variety of fishes.

c) Names indicating number such as dozen, pair, couple, and score (двадцать), when they are preceded by a numeral: two pair of gloves; five score of eggs; three dozen of shirts.

But the plural is also used:

He had… two pairs of stockings in his bundle. [10]

Note. – After many and few both forms are found: so many pair of wings, a great many pairs of gloves; a few score(s) of heads.

d) We have survivals of the old uninflected plural in kind, sort, and manner. The usual construction is now to keep kind, sort, and manner unchanged, but to use the plural these (those) if the word following of is plural (these kind of tools). But this construction is by many considered grammatically incorrect and therefore in careful literary speech books of that kind are preferred to the colloquial those kind of books:

These kinds of pens. Such kind of duties. Those sort of speeches.

e) The noun foot (measure of length) is feet in the plural. The plural foot is used when followed by a number indicating inches:

…I'm five foot eleven in my socks. [2] And was she tall enough? Only five foot five. [21]

1. The noun pound (indicating money) has usually the s-plural except when followed by a numeral indicating shillings: two pounds, but: two pound ten.

2. The nouns species and series borrowed from the Latin have also one form for both singular and plural:

A series of very, interesting experiments has been made in our laboratory. Two admirable series of the masters of Russian literature have been published recently. What a pretty species of roses! Many beautiful species of roses are cultivated in our garden.

6. Foreign Plurals. – Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French or Greek) from which they have been borrowed:

Memorandum [am] – memoranda [э]; datum [am] – data [3]; phenomenon [an] – phenomena [aj; crisis [iz] – crises [i:zj; nucleus [ias] – nuclei [iai]; terminus [as] – termini [ai]; stimulus [as] – stimuli [at]; formula [a] – formulae [i:J; index – indices [i:z].

Words that are much used often have an English plural: memorandums, formulas, indexes, terminuses.

In all countries the broadest strata of the population have been mobilized in support of this great cause – the preservation of peace.

Then the pied wind-flowers and the tulip tall, and narcissi, the fairest among them all… [22]… the rest of the house had grown, emerging here and there into small oases of modernity. [21] Shelgrim wrote a few memoranda on his calendar pad, and signed a couple of letters before turning to Presley. [14]

Traditionally, the plural is formed by the inflexion – (e) s, the singular form of the nouns is a bare stem with a zero-inflexion. According this there are several ways of the pronunciation of the inflexion – (e) s at the end of the word, also there are several peculiarities in spelling. Some nouns are survivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural. In many instances where the form in – s is used it may be understood either as the plural form of the common case or as the plural possessive. Some nouns have one form for both singular and plural. Some nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged plurals. Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French or Greek) from which they have been borrowed.

1. Nouns Used in Both Numbers Singular and Plural

It is quite evident that only those nouns have both numbers (singular and plural) which denote things that can be counted, that is, things possessing a certain shape or having precise limits. Such nouns may be called countable or thing-nouns. To the group of nouns which have both numbers belong:

a) Concrete nouns: a girl – two girls; a book – two books; a flower – two flowers.

He took the loaf back to the scullery. [15] Brown, crisp loaves stood on the hearth. [15] Flowers fell on her face, and she shut her eyes… One flower had remained tangled in her hair. [15]

b) Abstract nouns: a day – two days; an event – two events; a task – two tasks.

Captain Cuttle liked this idea very much. [10] A new generation is growing up in our midst, a generation actuated by new ideas and new principles. [11] It was a momentary thought… [10] Andrew went back to Christine that evening with his thoughts in a maze. [23] I tried to shout but my voice was not very loud. [13] Voices and footsteps were heard in the passage… [19]

Nouns which have both numbers (countable) may be used with the indefinite article (in the singular) and associated with the pronouns some (in the singular or plural), many and few (in the plural):

A ring at the bell, repeated several times, roused him at last to go to the door. [21] What a night to wander out in! [21] Towards the evening of the following day…a letter arrived addressed to herself. [19] A, few early fallen oak-leaves strewed the terrace… [21] He had many invitations to dinner some of which he accepted. [7] Passing through a sort of porch made by two yew trees and some flowering-current bushes, the girl disappeared into the house. [21]

1. Pluralia Tantum and Singularia Tantum

The most general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the lexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into countable nouns and uncountable nouns. The constant categorial feature «quantitative structure» is directly connected with the variable feature «number», since uncountable nouns are treated grammatically as either singular or plural. Namely, the singular uncountable nouns are modified by the non-discrete quantifiers much or little, and they take the finite verb in the singular, while the plural uncountable nouns take the finite verb in the plural.

The two subclasses of uncountable nouns are usually referred to, respectively, as singularia tantum (only singular) and pluralia tantum (only plural). [27] The nouns which have only a plural and no singular are usually termed «pluralia tantum» (which is the Latin for «plural only»), and those which have only a singular and no plural are termed «singularia tantum» (the Latin for «singular only'') [26] In terms of oppositions we may say that in the formation of the two subclasses of uncountable nouns the number opposition is «constantly» (lexically) reduced either to the weak member (singularia tantum) or to the strong member (pluralia tantum).

Since the grammatical form of the uncountable nouns of the singularia tantum subclass is not excluded from the category of number, it stands to reason to speak of it as the «absolute» singular, as different from the «correlative» or «common» singular of the countable nouns. The absolute singular excludes the use of the modifying numeral one, as well as the indefinite article. [27]

The most general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the lexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into countable nouns and uncountable nouns. The nouns which have only a plural and no singular are usually termed «pluralia tantum», and those which have only a singular and no plural are termed «singularia tantum».

1. Nouns Used Only in the Singular or Singularia Tantum

Nouns denoting things which have neither shape nor precise limits cannot be counted and therefore have no distinction between singular and plural; they are used only in the singular. Such nouns may be called uncountable or mass-nouns. To the group of nouns used only in the singular belong:

a) Concrete nouns:

1. Names of materials: water, milk, wine, snow, bread, air.

On my breakfast table there is a pot of honey. [21]… there was the cool sound of milk dropping into pails… [21] We didn't take beer or wine. [11] Seizing ink and writing-paper, she began to write… [21]

2. Some collective nouns: foliage, leafage, shrubbery, brushwood, linen (белье), machinery, furniture:

Birds fluttered softly in the wet shrubbery… [21] He had chosen the furniture himself. [21]… he took a narrow ride up through a dark bit of mixed timber with heavy undergrowth. (Galsworthy.)

b) Abstract nouns: friendship, joy patriotism, love, kindness, weather, courage, information, progress, etc.: There was a great deal of confusion and laughter and noise… [11] It was beautiful weather. (Lawrence.) At parting, my aunt gave me some good advice… [10] A sudden tide of joy went leaping out of his heart. [11]

Nouns used only in the singular (uncountable) have no article where a noun which expresses both numbers (countable) would be associated with the indefinite article; they may be used with the pronouns what, some, much or little:

Perfect harvest weather; but oppressively still… [21] Everyone gave him advice… [11] Of course-this was good news. [7] «What delightful weather we are having!» [20] What beauty, what stillness! [21] He had anticipated much pleasure in this afternoon's reading… [9] «But have some tea. I've just made it.» [21]

Some collective nouns used only in the plural also belong to the group of uncountable such as: goods, sweepings, tidings, etc.

1. Nouns Used Only in the Plural

1. A number of nouns are used only in the form of the plural. With these nouns the plural does not indicate several objects but denotes a composite whole.

2. To the group of nouns which are used only in the plural form belong:

a) The names of things which consist of two similar halves such as scissors, trousers, spectacles, scales (весы), eye-glasses, tongs (щипцы):

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