Беликова Е.К., Саратовская Л.Б. - The United Kingdom and United States of America in Past and Present (1268141), страница 37
Текст из файла (страница 37)
Эта корпорация проводитпредварительные исследования, предшествующие выполнению проекта, ноне принимает практического участия в их осуществлении, хотяконсультирует исполнителей в ходе выполнения проекта. Ее частоназывают «мозговым центром», или «мыслительным резервуаром».В) Университеты и научные исследования. В настоящее времяуниверситеты США, оставаясь центрами высшего образования,превратились и в центры фундаментальных исследований. Их значение впроведении научных исследований можно сравнить в известной мере сролью Академии наук у нас в России. Это обусловлено концентрацией вуниверситетах значительного числа высококвалифицированных научныхработников, а также значительной государственной и частной финансовойподдержкой фундаментальных исследований.Организация исследований в университетах проводится в двух формах:на основе субсидий и по контрактам. Для получения субсидий ученыйдолжен составить план-заявку и в ней кратко изложить суть предложения.В случае принятия ведомством положительного решения ученый получаетсредства, за которые он несет личную ответственность.
Университетыпроводят исследования не только в своих лабораториях, но и влабораториях, принадлежащих различным правительственным ведомствам.Наиболее крупные федеральные исследовательские центры управляются поконтрактам университетской администрацией. Примером может служитьЛаборатория им. Линкольна при Массачусетском технологическоминституте.Характерным для современной Америки является быстрый ростнаучно-промышленныхкомплексов,появившихсяблагодарясотрудничеству университетской науки с промышленностью.
Такиекомплексыобъединяютуниверситеты,научно-исследовательскиеучреждения и промышленные фирмы, связанные общими интересами вобласти исследований и производства. Среди таких комплексовважнейшими являются: Кембридж-Бостон, Сан-Франциско, Лос-Анджелес,Принстон и Хьюстон. Превращение университетов в центрыфундаментальных исследований значительно повысило их статус вобществе.Г).
Русские американцы. Без России не было бы телевизоров ивертолетов. На всем протяжении американской истории, причем в еесамые ответственные моменты, русские всегда были готовы прийти ипомочь. Первый «русский американец», друг президента Мэдисона ФедорКаржавин (1745-1812) внес свою лепту в борьбу за независимость.
Жизньи дела его - сюжеты для авантюрного романов. Полковник Российской145армии Иван Тупчанинов после Крымской войны вышел в отставку иэмигрировал в Америку. Там во время гражданской войны добровольцемзаписался в армию северян, командовал бригадой и был произведенЛинкольном в генералы. Его жена стала первой в Америке женщиной полевым хирургом.Александр Северский (1894-1974) был конструктором военных самолетов.Среди его идей были автопилот и система дозоправки в воздухе. СтепанТимошенко(1878-1972)-ученый-металлург, крупнейший в мире специалистпо сопротивлению материалов… Тысячи фамилий в русском миреАмерики являются гордостью наших стран:.Нобелевский лауреат,экономист Леонтьев, изобретатель телевидения Зворикин, авиаконструкторИгорь Сикорский, выдающийся американский офтальмолог ЕленаФедукович, Нина Федорова – генетик, академик Национальной академиинаук, физик Георгий Гамов.
А еще – писатели, артисты балета, музыканты,певцы, художники!Part 2. Silicon Valley – What is This.Read the following words and word combination:An entrepreneur – предприниматель, владелец предприятия.To be charged with a project – поручать проектVenture capital –капитал, вложенный в предприятиеSynergy - явление в деловой практике, когда общий результат превосходитсумму отдельных эффектовTo endow - капитал, вкладываемый в предприятиеEmbedded - включенныйTo impede- обеспечивать капиталомInsulator- диэлектрик, непроводникImpurities- примесьFlagship- флагманTo embark on - начинать дело, браться заTo earn a doctorate – получить докторскую степеньOuters up to the… – до отказа, по ушиTо be bootstrapped to – быть загруженным… Boron - борGeographically, the Silicon Valley is the northern partof the Santa Clara County, an area stretching from thesouth end of the San Francisco Area to San Jose- thecapital of Santa Clara County, limited by the Santa CruzMountains in the west and the northern part of theDiablo Range in the east.
The name Silicon Valley wascoined in 1971 by Don C. Hoefler, editor of theMicroelectronics News, when he used this term in his146magazine as the title for a series of articles about semiconductor industryin Santa Clara County. Silicon Valley saw the development of theintegrated circuit, the microprocessor, the personal computer and thevideo game and has spawned a lot of high-tech products as pocketcalculators, cordless telephones, lasers or digital watches. Looking at ourhigh-tech society in which the PC has become indispensable-both inbusinesses and at home, the crucial role of Silicon Valley as thebirthplace of the microelectronics and then the PC revolution has becomeeven more evident.Silicon Valley is also seen as a place where many entrepreneurs backedby venture capital have made the American Dream come true as“Overnight Millionaires”.
This makes Silicon Valley a philosophy sayingthat everything which seems impossible is feasible and thatimprovements in the US society can take place. The mayor of San JoseThomas Enery called it the “economic and cultural frontier wheresuccessful entrepreneurship and venture capitalism, innovative work rulesand open management styles provide the background for the mostprofound inquiry ever into the nature of intelligence” which might,together with “bioengineering and artificially intelligent software”, affectour evolution. The revolutionary inventions and developments, whichhave been made in this «Valley», affect the daily life and it is hard toimagine high-tech society without them.The story of the “Silicon Valley” starts with Stanford University,which has been of fundamental importance in the rise of the electronicsindustry in Santa Clara County.
In 1887, Leland Stanford, a wealthyrailroad magnate who owned a large part of the Pacific Railroad, decidedto built a university and dedicate it to the memory of his son who diedvery young. The university was opened in 1891 and became later one ofthe world’s greatest academic institutions. Frederick Term who isknown today as a godfather of the Silicon Valley changed the position ofthis university fundamentally.
After graduation from Stanford Universityhe decided to go east to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),which was then the leading university in technology. After receiving hisdoctorate in 1924 he turned to Palo Alto and became the head of theengineering department in 1937.Terman established strong cooperationbetween Stanford and the surrounding electronics industry to stop thebrain drain among the university graduates, as they could not find goodjobs in California at that time.
Due to his prepaid leasing program147Terman received more than $18 million. Thanks to him many companiesendowed the university with gifts, which Terman used to hire qualifiedprofessors from all over the USA. Thus, he created a mechanism, whichincreased the settlement of the electronics industry.During World War II, after the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor in1942, a great deal of the US military forces and of the military productionwas moved to California. Within a few years, California became abooming industrial state and the military center of the USA. After WorldWar II, the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) was founded to providethe industry with more skilled specialists and increase the number ofcompanies in Santa Clara County.
More firms - among them HewlettPackard as one of the first residents - settled their departments in thispark. During the Korean War the US government placed Stanford with agreat deal of the projects, which attracted more and more electronicscompanies (among them IBM and Lockheed) opened R&D departmentsin Santa Clara County.
Military funding for high-tech products wasresponsible for the rapid growth of Silicon Valley. Such firms as FMC,GTE, Varian Associates, Westinghouse, and finally Lockheed openedtheir R&D departments in the Stanford Research Park and startedLockheed Missiles and Space Company (LMSC) in Sunnyvale. Theywere to become the core of the early explosive growth of Silicon ValleyLockheed’s (with 24,000 Employees now) move to Northern Californiawas crucial for the developments in Santa Clara County The invention ofthe microprocessor in the early 1970s represented the next step towardsthe modern way of computing, providing the basis for the subsequentpersonal computer revolution . The first microprocessor was designed atIntel Corporation (Integrated Electronics) representing the key tomodern personal computers.
With its logic and memory chips, thecompany started providing the basic components for microcomputers.Intel, the most successful semiconductor company is regarded as SiliconValley’s flagship, owing its worldwide leading role to a perpetually highspending on research and development (R&D).The foundation of the corporation started in 1968 by Bob Noyce togetherwith Gordon Moore and Andy Grove. Their aim was to embark on anew venture and “to regain the satisfaction of research and development”.After Bob Noyce had developed a new photochemical process, the threeengineers developed the ideas of integrating many transistors on a chip ofsilicon.
Initially they focused on building the first semiconductor chips148used for computer memory, which could replace the dominant memorystorage technology at the time, called “magnetic core”. The youngcompany started with 12 employees and with the first two productsgained the technological lead in the field of memory chips.Within a year, Intel developed its first product - the 3101 Schottkybipolar 64-bit static random access memory (SRAM), which was soonfollowed by the 1101. This chip (1101) was a 256-bit SRAM developedon Intel’s new “silicon gate metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) process”.This year the company introduced a new memory chip (“erasable,programmable read only memory”). Invented by Intel’s Dov Frohman,the new memory could store data permanently but besides could beerased simply by a beam of ultraviolet light and be used again.The unexpected synergy between the EPROM and the microprocessorresulted in a growing market for both chips and contributed a great dealto Intel’s early success.
Intel’s first really successful product was the1103 dynamic random access memory (DRAM), which wasmanufactured in the MOS process. Introduced in 1970, this chip was“first merchant market LSI (large-scale integrated) DRAM”, and receivedbroad acceptance because it was superior to magnetic core memories. So,by the end of 1971, the 1103 become the world’s largest-sellingsemiconductor device and provided the capital for Intel’s early growth.Until today, semiconductor has adhered to Moore’s Law, which hasbeen framed by the cofounder of Fairchild and Intel when the firstcommercial DRAMs appeared in the early 1970s. This law predicts thatthe price per bit drops by 30% every year.
![](https://s.studizba.com/z.php?f=/templates/si/i/noavatar.png&w=100&h=100&t=1"){kind=avatar}
