As a society is created by the interaction of people, they establish ways of interacting that are acceptable or unacceptable. When a way of behaviour is both emotionally satisfying and leads to rewards from others, it becomes institutionalized. The way by which behaviour, custom or practice is institutionalized, is called institutionalization. For instance, institutionalization of any science means working out various standards, laws, setting up research institutes, laboratories, faculties, departments at universities, also publishing textbooks, monographs and journals, training specialists in the area etc.

Thus, the concept of a social institution defines an aggregate of people whose activities in a certain area are regulated with inflexible systems of social, legal or other controls by organizations originally created for beneficial purposes and intents. As any structure, it is presented by its structural elements although some sociologists argue against, defining them as attributes.

Structural elements of the society’s fundamental institutions

At the same time fundamental institutions are divided into smaller units called non-fundamental institutions. For instance, economy can’t operate without such practices as production, distribution, market, management, accounting, etc.; the institution of the family and marriage includes such practices as martenity, vendetta, sworn brotherhood etc. So non-fundamental institutions are social practices or customs, for example, vendetta or celibacy can be identified either as a tradition or settled practice. Both are right as the fundamental institution includes both traditions and practices.

If the purpose of fundamental institutions is to satisfy the basic needs of the society, non-fundamental institutions perform specialized objectives, serve particular traditions or satisfy non-fundamental needs. For instance, a higher school as a social institution meets the social need in training highly qualified specialists.

By its character of organization, institutions are subdivided into formal and informal ones. The activities of formal institutions are regulated by strictly settled directions such as law, charter, instructions etc. Formal institutions are often bureaucracies in which the functions of bureaucrats are impersonal, i. e. that their functions are performed independently of their personal qualities.

In informal institutions playing a very important role in interpersonal interaction, their aims, methods, means to achieve objectives are not settled formally and not fixed in the charter. For instance, organizing their leisure time, teenagers follow their rules of game, or norms which allow them to solve conflicts. But these norms are fixed in public opinion, traditions or customs, in other words, in informal sanctions. Very often public opinion or custom is a more efficient means to control an individual’s behaviour than legislative laws or other formal sanctions. For instance, people prefer being punished by their formal leaders than being blamed by colleagues or friends.

Both formal and informal institutions have functions. To function means to bring benefit. So, the function of a social institution is the benefit that it contributes to the society. In other words, the outcomes or end-products of the system, institution and the like are referred to as its function. If besides benefit there is damage or harm, such actions are referred to as dysfunction. For instance, the function of a higher education is to train highly qualified specialists. If the institution functions badly due to some circumstances (lack of personnel, poor teaching, or methodical and material basis), the society will not get specialists of the required level. It means that the institution dysfunctions.

Functions and dysfunctions can be manifest if they are formally declared, perceived by everybody and obvious, and latent which are hidden, or not declared. To manifest functions of a secondary school those of getting literacy, enough knowledge to enter university, vocational training, learning basic values of the society may be referred to. Its latent functions are getting a definite social status which enables to become ranked higher than those who are illiterate, making stable friends etc.

Functions and dysfunctions are of relative, not of absolute character. Each of them can have two forms – manifest and latent. In one and the same time both a function and dysfunction may be manifest for some members of the society and latent – for the other ones. For instance, some people consider important to obtain fundamental knowledge at university, others – to establish necessary links and relations. Latent functions differ from dysfunctions by that they don’t bring harm. They only show that the benefit from any institution (system etc) can be larger than it is declared.

To sum it up, each of the institutions reflects a different aspect of the society. Each of them performs a different role in the society fostering spiritual, social, or educational development. On a larger scale, these organizations exemplify the links that bind a society together.

BASIC CONCEPTS

Achieved status – a social position that a person assumes voluntarily which reflects personal skills, abilities, and efforts.

Ascribed status – a social position a person is given from birth or assumes involuntarily later in life.

Class – an assortment of people united by their relations to the means of production and character of acquiring wealth under a market economy.

Dysfunction – bring harm.

Flexibility – a capacity to change.

Formal group – a collection of people whose activities are regulated by formal documents such as legislative norms, charters, instructions, registered rules, bans or permissions sanctioned by the society, organization etc.

Function – bring benefit.

Informal group – a group formed on the basis of common interests or values, respect, personal affection etc. which cohere individuals into more or less stable entity.

Institutionalization – the way by which behaviour, custom or practice is institutionalized.

Large social group – a stable numerous collection of people who act together in socially significant situations in the context of the country or state, or their unions.

Latent function – a function if it is not formally declared, perceived by people or obvious.

Main status – a status used by an individual to identify himself or by other people to indentify a definite person.

Manifest function – a function if it is formally declared, perceived by everybody and obvious.

Middle-sized group – a relatively stable community of people who work at the same enterprise or organization, members of a social association or those sharing one limited but large enough territory.

Personal status – a person’s position in a small group identified by how the members of the group estimate and percieve him due to his personal qualities.

Prescribed element (role expectation) – what provides a norm-based framework governing the way people are generally supposed to interact.

Primary group – a small social group whose members share personal and enduring emotional relationships which are established on the basis of direct contacts reflecting the members’ personal characteristics

Real group – any group of people possessing a number of characteristics describing its immanent essence.

Reference group – any group one can use to evaluate oneself, but it doesn’t necessarily mean one must belong to it.

Role performance – what a person really performs within the norm-based framework.

Role set – all roles that a person plays.

Secondary group – a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a special interest or activity.

Social community – a natural or social grouping of people characterized by a common feature, more or less enduring social relationships, goal attainment, common patterns of behaviour and speculation.

Small group – a group normally small in number, characterized by human interactions in the form of direct contacts like in families.

Social group – an assortment of people cohered by a socially significant distinction, people who interact together in an orderly way and perceive themselves or perceived by others as a group.

Social institution – organized patterns of beliefs and behaviours centered on basic social needs, adapting to specific segment of the society; an organization, or mechanism of social structure, governing the behaviour of two or more individuals; a totality of customs or practices that was established by the members of a particular society, by God, or just an established and respected practice.

Social layer – an assortment of people who are distinguished by their status and who perceive themselves cohered by this community.

Social role – the way that a person is expected to behave in a particular social situation.

Social status –a person’s position in the society which he occupies as a representative of a large social group.

Social structure – the carcass of a social whole (society or its part) the elements of which are invariable in time, interdependent of each other and largely determine the functioning of the whole in general and its members in particular (functionalist perspective); the way in which the society is organized into predictable relationships, patterns of social interaction.

Statistical group – a group of people differentiated by a definite characteristic that can be measured.

Status set – the number of statuses which a person has or acquired.

Structure – functional interdependence of elements constituting the carcass of an object.

Additional literature

1. Blau P. Exchange and Power in Social Life. (3rd edition). – New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers, 1992. – 354 p.

2. Bourdeiu P. Logic of Practice. – Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990. – 382 p.

3. Coser L. The Functions of Social Conflict. – Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1956. – 188 p.

4. Durkheim E. The Division of Labour in Society. – New York, NY: Free Press; 1997. – 272 p.

5. Durkheim E. Suicide. – New York, NY: Free Press; 1951. – 345 p.

6. Sztompka P. Sociology in Action: The Theory of Social Decoding. – Oxford: Polity Press, 2001. – 415 p.