42928 (Modal verbs), страница 4

They must be satisfied with going to the piers… (M. Spark)

1. May and must are used to express prohibition in negative sentences. But may is seldom found in this meaning. In negative answers to questions with may asking for permission we generally find must not or cannot.

E.g. ‘May I smoke here?” “No, you mustn’t (you can’t).

To have to

To have to as a modal verb is not a defective verb and can have all the necessary finite forms as well as the verbal.

E.g. He is an invalid and has to have a nurse.

She knew what she had to do.

He frightened her – I had to yield him my last date before Bill came. (F. Scott Fitzgerald0

I shall have to reconsider my position.

He is always having to exercise judgment.

My impression was that he was having to force himself to talk.

I have had to remind you of writing to her all this time.

The women at barfed had had to be told that an experiment was taking place that day. “As a matter of fact,” he said, “I’ve been having to spend some time with the research people.”

It wouldn’t have been very nice for the David’s sons to have to mix with all those people in the smoking-room.

Having to work alone, he wanted all his time for his research.

The interrogative and negative forms of the modal verb to have to are built up by means of the auxiliary verb to do.

E.g. Why do I have to do everything?

Did he have to tell them about it?

“That is all right,” she said. “I just thought I’d ask. You don’t have to explain.”

There was a grim on his face. He did not have to tell me that he already knew.

The verb to have to serves to express obligation or necessity imposed by circumstances.

It is rendered is Russian as приходится, вынужден.

In this meaning it is found in all kinds of sentences – affirmative, interrogative and negative – and is combined only with the simple infinitive.

E.g. I am afraid you will have to go to the court.

They will have him back. (Они заставят его вернуться)

Did he have to do it? He did not have to do it.

If you go abroad, no matter how you are traveling, you have to go through the customs. (M. Spark)

The negotiations might fail. In that event the Government would have to decide what to do. (Morning star)

I have to revise other ideas about her. (F. Scott Fitzgerald0

In negative sentences to have to denotes absence of necessity.

E.g. You don’t have to go there. (Вам нет необходимости идти туда).

You mustn’t go there. (Вам нельзя идти туда).

In spoken English the meaning of obligation and necessity is also expressed by have (has) got to. Like the verb to have to it is found in all kinds of sentences and is combined with the simple infinitive.

E.g. He has got to go right now.

Has he got to go right now?

He hasn't got to go just yet.

This combination may also be found in the past tense, though it is not very common.

E.g. He had got to sell his car.

A few drops begun to fall “We’d better take shelter,’ she said. (Нам лучше укрыться).

She didn’t like to say that she thought they had better not play cards when the guest might come in at any moment.

Had better is followed by the infinitive without to.

We can compare the usage of this verb in American and British literature:

You’ve got to be kidding – American English.

You’ve got to be joking – British English.

To be to

To be to as a modal verb is used in the present and past tenses.

E.g. We are to meet at six.

We were to meet at six.

To be to as a modal verb has the following meanings:

1. a previously arranged plan or obligation resulting from the arrangement

E.g. We are to discuss it the following week.

Is he to arrive tomorrow?

Who was to speak at the meeting?

Mass struggle is vital if the elimination of the evils of racial hatred is to be guaranteed.(Daily Worker)

This meaning of to be to is found in affirmative and interrogative sentences in the present and past tenses. To be to is followed by the simple infinitive.

The past tense of the verb to be to in combination with the Perfect infinitive denotes an unfulfilled plan.

E.g. I promised to go to a club with her last Tuesday, and I really forgot all about it. We were to have played a duet together.

1. orders and instructions, often official (frequently in reported speech).

E.g. I just mention it because you said I was to give you all the details I could.

Norman says I am to leave you alone. All junior officers are to report to the colonel at once.

The Prime Minister is to go to Paris next week. (Daily Worker, London)

In this meaning to be to is found is affirmative and negative sentences and followed by the simple infinitive.

1. something that is destined to happen

E.g. He was to be my teacher and friend for many years to come.

He did not know at the time that he was never to see his native place again.

How was I to know that I was going to meet a raging beauty?

It has been a great blow to me that you haven’t been able to follow me in my business as I followed by father. Three generations, that would have been. But it wasn’t to be.

This meaning of to be to is rendered in Russian as суждено. It is mainly found in the past tense and its application is limited to narration. It occurs in affirmative and negative sentences and is followed by the simple infinitive.

1. Possibility

E.g. Her father was often to be seen in the bar of the Hotel Metropole.

Where is he to be found?

Nothing was to be done under the circumstances.

Responsibilities and obligations possessed by the Soviet trade unions are to be envied. (Morning Star)

In this meaning to be to is equivalent to can or may. It is used in all kinds of sentences in the present and past tenses and is followed by the passive infinitive.

Here are some examples taken from the literary works:

‘Tell him to go to sleep’. – ‘She says you’re to go to sleep’. (D.H. Lawrence).

I could scarcely see her in the darkness, but when I rose to go – it was plain that I was not to linger – she stood in the orange light from the doorway. (F Scott Fitzgerald)

Must, to have to and to be to Compared.

The verbs must, to have to and to be to have one meaning in common, that of obligation. In the present tense the verbs come very close to each other in their use, though they preserve their specific shades of meaning. Thus must indicates obligation or necessity from the speaker’s viewpoint, i.e. it expresses obligation imposed by the speaker.

E.g. I must do it. (I want to do it).

He must do it himself.

To have to expresses obligation or necessity imposed by circumstances.

E.g. What a pity you have to go now (It is time for you to catch you train).

He has to do it himself. (He has got no one to help him).

To be to expresses obligation or necessity resulting from an arrangement.

E.g. We are to wait for them at the entrance. (We have arranged to meet there, so we must wait form them at the appointed place).

Sometimes the idea of obligation is absent and to be to expresses only a previously arranged plan.

E.g. We are to go the cinema tonight.

In the past tense, however, the difference in the use of the three verbs is quite considerable.

Must has no past tense. It is used in past-time contexts only in reported speech.

E.g. He said he must do it himself.

Had to + infinitive is generally used to denote an action which was realized in the past as a result of obligation or necessity imposed by circumstance.

E.g. I had to sell my car. (It was necessary for me to do it because I needed money).

He had to put on his raincoat. (It was raining hard outside and he would have got wet if he had not).

Was (were) to + infinitive is used to denote an action planned for the future which is viewed from the past. The action was no realized in the past and the question remains open as to whether it is going to take place.

E.g. We were to meet him at the station. (It is not clear from the sentence if the action will take place).

If the speaker wishes to make it clear at once that the plan was not fulfilled, the Perfect infinitive is used to show that.

E.g. We were to have met him t the station. (That means that we failed to meet him). However, the simple infinitive may also be used in this case.

In reported speech (in past-time contexts) must remains unchanged in all of its meanings.

E.g. He said he must do it without delay.

He said I mustn’t tell anyone about it.

The doctor told her that she must eat.

They believed the story must be true.

Parallel to must, had to + infinitive is also used occasionally in reported speech to express obligation.

E.g. He said he had to make a telephone call at once.

In this case had to is close to must in meaning: it does not include the idea of a realized action but refers to some future moment.

Ought to

The modal verb ought to has only one form which is used “with reference to the present of future. In reported speech it remains unchanged. Ought is always followed by the infinitive with to.

Ought to has the following meanings:

1. obligation, which in different contexts may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as advisability and desirability,

E.g. You ought to say a word or two about yourself.

Ought she to warn him?

He oughtn’t to mention it to anybody.

“It doesn’t mean you ought to marry a Yankee.” He persisted.(F. Scott Fitzgerald)

In this meaning ought to is possible in all kinds of sentences, though it is felt to be awkward in questions where should is preferred.

Generally ought to refers an action to the future and is followed by the simple infinitive. With reference to the present ought to is used with the continuous infinitive or with the simple infinitive if the verb is stative.

E.g. At your age you ought to be earning your living.

You ought to feel some respect for your elders.

It was getting darker and darker – all those tomb-stones ought to be repainted, sure enough, only that would spoil them, of course. (F. Scott Fitzgerald).

“If you care for him you certainly oughtn’t to belittle yourself in front of him,” said Ailie in a flash, her head high. (F. Scott Fitzgerald)

In combination with the perfect infinitive ought to in the affirmative form shows that a desirable action was no fulfilled.

E.g. You ought to have chosen a more suitable time to tell me this news.

In the negative form ought to in combination with the Perfect Infinitive shows that an undesirable action was fulfilled

E.g. I’m sorry. I ought to have said it.

You oughtn’t to have married her, David. It was a great mistake.

1. supposition implying strong probability.

E.g. Oughtn’t you to go and have your tiffin?

The of ought to in this case is not very common as this meaning is normally rendered by must: He/You ought to know it (=he is/you are supposed to know it). You ought to be ashamed of yourself.

Shall and should

Historically, shall and should were two forms of the same verb expressing obligation. She was the present tense of the Indicative Mood; should was the Subjunctive Mood. But later they came to express different meanings and in present-day English their use is not parallel – they are treated as two different verbs.

Shall

In modern English the modal meaning of obligation in shall is always combined with the function of an auxiliary verb of the future tense.